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Silene L. spp.

Overview
General Information
ID Info
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Renseignements Généraux
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Family :

Famille :

Caryophyllaceae

Synonym(s) :

Synonyme(s) :

Behen Moench (USDA-ARS 2024)
Charesia E. A. Busch (USDA-ARS 2024)
Coronaria Guett. (FNA 1993+; USDA-ARS 2024)
Gastrocalyx Schischk. (USDA-ARS 2024)
Gastrolychnis (Fenzl) Rchb. (FNA 1993+; USDA-ARS 2024)
Lychnis L. (FNA 1993+)
Melandrium Röhl. (FNA 1993+; USDA-ARS 2024)
Melandryum Rchb. (FNA 1993+; USDA-ARS 2024)
Schischkiniella Steenis (USDA-ARS 2024)
Steris Raf. (USDA-ARS 2024)

Common Name(s) :

Nom(s) commun(s) :

Campion

(English) (FNA 1993+; USDA-ARS 2024)
Catchfly (English) (FNA 1993+; USDA-ARS 2024)

Sleepy catchfly (Silene antirrhina) seeds

  • Sleepy catchfly (Silene antirrhina) seeds

  • Sleepy catchfly (Silene antirrhina) seed; hilum view

  • Silene dichotoma (forked catchfly) seed

  • Silene dichotoma (forked catchfly) seed; hilum view

  • Silene latifolia (white cockle) seeds

  • Silene latifolia (white cockle) seed, profile

  • Silene latifolia (white cockle) seeds, hilum view

  • Silene noctiflora (night-flowering catchfly) seeds

  • Silene noctiflora (night-flowering catchfly) seeds

  • Silene noctiflora (night-flowering catchfly) seed, hilum view

  • Bladder campion (Silene vulgaris) seeds

  • Bladder campion (Silene vulgaris) seeds

  • Bladder campion (Silene vulgaris) seed

  • Silene noctiflora (night-flowering catchfly) capsules

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Explore plus :

Overview

Aperçu

Regulation :

Remarques Réglementation:

    Regulation Notes:

    Distribution :

    Répartition :

    Silene is a widespread genus with about 700 (FNA 1993+) to over 900 (GBIF 2024) species found worldwide, but mostly concentrated in the northern hemisphere. It is native to North America, Mexico, parts of South America, Greenland, Iceland, and all throughout Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. It has been introduced to parts of South and Central America, Australia, Indonesia, Tasmania, and New Zealand (POWO 2024).

    In Canada, 31 Silene species and 1 hybrid are reported with 16 species native to all of Canada except New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, 12 are introduced throughout Canada, and three introduced species are reported but unconfirmed; the hybrid is native and found in both western and eastern Canada (Brouillet et al. 2010+).

    In the United States, 88 species of Silene have been reported throughout the continental United States, Alaska, and Hawaii, including 17 introduced species, 61 native species, 9 unconfirmed, and 1 hybrid introduced from Canada (USDA-NRCS 2024). There are numerous narrow endemics in the United States, including 7 endemics to California, 6 in Hawaii, 2 in Nevada, and 1 each in Utah, Arizona, Washington, and New Mexico, and multiple other species with very limited ranges often found only in specific mountain ranges (USDA-NRCS 2024). For instance, Silene rectiramea B.L. Rob. is a rare species found only in Arizona’s Grand Canyon National Park (Hakansan n.d.). All the Hawaiian endemics are rare with very limited ranges, and one, Silene degeneri Sherff, was only known from a sample collected in 1927 (Smithsonian n.d.) and is now presumed extinct (NatureServe Explorer 2.0. n.d.). An additional species, Silene coronaria (L.) Clairville is listed under its synonym Lychnis coronaria (L.) Desr. and is widely introduced in the western and eastern United States (USDA-NRCS 2024).

    Habitat and Crop Association :

    Habitat et Cultures Associées :

    With so many species, it is hard to make generalizations about habitat preferences. Still, most Silene species prefer well-drained, dry to medium-moist, often rocky or sandy soils in full sun to partial shade in disturbed areas, waste places, roadsides, as well as prairies, savannahs, open forests and shrublands, and many species are restricted to mountainous areas on gentle to steep slopes (personal observations).

    Silene gallica L. has been known to infest Triticum aestivum L. (wheat) crops. In Chile, it has developed herbicide resistance to imazamox, imazapyr, iodosulfuron-methyl-Na, metsulfuron-methyl, and pyroxsulam (Heap, 2024).

    Economic Use, cultivation area, and Weed Association :

    Utilisation économique, zone de culture et association de mauvaises herbes :

    Numerous Silene species are popular garden perennials, cultivated ornamentally around the world. For instance, Silene chalcedonica E.H.L. Krause, sold under the name Maltese cross, Silene dioica (L.) Clairville, the red catchfly or red campion, Silene coronaria, the pink campion, and numerous others that are often listed under synonyms.

    Silene vulgaris (Moench.) Garcke and other species are popular foraged wild edibles throughout their native Mediterranean region and worldwide. Phytoalimurgia (2016) report that the leaves and young shoots are cooked as a substitute for spinach, a side-dish, or used in savoury tarts, ravioli, omelettes, and pasta sauces. However, while its use raw use in salads is often reported, it contains saponins which are broken down when cooked, so it is only eaten sparingly when raw.

    Numerous Silene species are used in traditional medicines around the world as emollients, to clean wounds and hair, as a juice used in ophthalmia, or to treat headaches, malaria, stomach-ache, sore throats, fever, ear and nose infections, asthma, and bronchitis, and for use as a fumigant, disinfectant, anti-inflammatory, adaptogen, and aphrodisiac (Chandra and Rawat 2015).

    Duration of Life Cycle :

    Durée du cycle vital:

    Annual, biennial, perennial

    Dispersal Unit Type :

    Type d’unité de dispersion :

    Seeds

    General Information

    RENSEIGNEMENTS GÉNÉRAUX

    There is a great deal of discrepancy in the number of species in the genus, depending on which synonyms are included or excluded. For instance, Flora of North America (FNA 1993+) includes Lychnis, Melandrium, and Viscaria, while others do not or only include some. There has been significant confusion in nomenclature and taxonomy throughout the genus, and a substantial number of very narrow endemics contribute to the challenges of quantifying the number of species.

    According to the University of Alaska Anchorage (UAA 2011), Silene species are spread mostly by seeds, with plants producing hundreds to tens of thousands of seeds per plant. The seeds do not spread far beyond the parent plant. Still, many have been widely spread outside their native range from the early introduction in ballast water to later accidental introduction as garden escapees and seed contamination, especially in Trifolium L. species (clover). They can spread on equipment or clothing and can remain viable after passing through animal digestive tracts. They can also stay viable for many years in the soil and germinate readily after the soil is disturbed. Some species are also able to reproduce vegetatively.

    Yashina et al. (2012) report that whole fertile plants from 30,000-year-old fruit tissues of Silene stenophylla Ledeb., an extant species still living in Siberia and Japan buried in Siberian permafrost, were produced using tissue culture techniques. Subsequent seeds produced were germinated and showed a strong resemblance to their parents, demonstrating high cryo-resistance of plant tissues in permafrost, suggesting that permafrost can be a source for ancient gene pools previously thought lost.

    .

    Silene flos-cuculi (L.) Clairville invasion in a field. Photo by Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org

    Identification

    Identification

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    • Capsule

      Size

      • Silene species capsule length range: 7 – 22 mm (FNA 1993+)

      Specific examples:
      • S. armeria L. capsule length: 7-10 mm (FNA 1993+)
      • S. baccifera (L.) Roth. capsule length: 6–8 mm (FOC 1994+)
      • S. conoidea L. capsule length: 15-20 mm (FNA 1993+)
      • S. dioica Poir. capsule length: 10–15 mm (FNA 1993+)
      • S. latifolia Poir. capsule length: 1.5–1.7 cm (FOC 1994+)
      • S. noctiflora L. capsule length: 1.5–1.8 cm (FOC 1994+)

      Shape

      • Capsules of Silene species may be egg-shaped (e.g. S. latifolia), flask-shaped with a narrowed end (S. conoidea) or inflated globose (S. vulgaris)
      • Capsules are dehiscent at maturity, and open at the top by generally 3 triangular valves, splitting into 6 teeth (e.g. S. armeria, S. conoidea, S. noctiflora, S. vulgaris) or 5 valves that split into 10 teeth (e.g. S. dioica, S. latifolia) (FNA 1993+)
      • One species, S. baccifera, has a fleshy, berry-like capsule (FOC 1994+)

      Surface Texture

      • Capsule surface texture is generally smooth or slightly wrinkled

      Colour

      • Silene species capsules are yellowish or brownish when mature
      • S. baccifera has shiny black capsules (FOC 1994+)

      Other Features

      • The capsule is supported by a stalk (carpophore) above the calyx; the length is a diagnostic feature, e.g. S. armeria stalk length: 7-8 mm, S. vulgaris stalk length: 2-3 mm (FNA 1993+)
      • The calyx is persistent in fruit, surrounds the capsule and carpophore, and is generally a similar length as the capsule
      • Capsules generally contain 15-100 seeds, but the total can range from 5-500+ (FNA 1993+)

      Silene noctiflora (night-flowering catchfly) capsule

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    • Seed

      Size

      • Silene species seed length range: 0.4 – 1.9 mm (Bojňanský and Fargašová 2007; ISMA 2020)

      Specific examples:
      • S. armeria L. seed length: 0.5-0.6 mm; width: 0.6-0.8 mm (Bojňanský and Fargašová 2007)
      • S. dichotoma Ehrh. seed length: 1-1.2 mm; width: 1.4-1.6 mm (Bojňanský and Fargašová 2007)
      • S. dioica seed length: 0.9-1.1 mm; width: 1.4-1.6 mm (Bojňanský and Fargašová 2007)
      • S. gallica L. seed length: 0.7-0.9 mm; width: 0.9-1.1 mm (Bojňanský and Fargašová 2007)
      • S. latifolia seed length*: 1.0-1.6 mm; width: 0.9-1.3 mm
      • S. noctiflora seed length**: 0.9-1.3 mm; width: 0.8-1.1 mm
      • S. vulgaris (Moench) Garcke seed length**: 1.1-1.9 mm; width: 0.8-1.6 mm

      *Note: minimum and maximum of 10 seeds in a normal range of this species using image measurement (ISMA 2020)
      **Note: minimum and maximum of 20 seeds in a normal range of this species using image measurement (ISMA 2020)

      Shape

      • Silene species seeds have diverse shapes, but are generally D-shaped or kidney-shaped (reniform) and laterally compressed with convex sides
      • Some Silene seeds appear almost triangular (S. bupleroides L.) or irregular and variable shaped due to packing of seeds in the capsule (e.g. S. csereii Baumgart., S. vulgaris)
      • Some species may have flat sides, and are squarish or angular in 3 dimensions (e.g. S. armeria), or are inflated in 3 dimensions (e.g. S. latifolia) or have concave sides (e.g. S. gallica, S. linicola C.C. Gmel.)
      • Seed edges may be narrowed into a thin ridge or wing (e.g. S. colorata Poir., S. apetala Willd.) or long scales (e.g. S. schafta Gmel.)
      • The hilum is a round opening in the middle of the straight edge, generally in a depression or notch
      • The seed coat may have blunt protrusions on either side of the hilum (e.g. S. vulgaris, S. noctiflora), or a partial collar (e.g. S. latifolia)

      Surface Texture

      • Surface texture is generally stellate grooved reticulation, with convex interspaces arranged in concentric rows
      • The interspaces may be in regular rows (e.g. S. latifolia, S. vulgaris) or appear as a random arrangement (e.g. S. noctiflora)
      • The reticulation interspaces are generally oval-shaped, but may be elongated in some species (e.g. S. conoidea, S. gallica)
      • Silene species generally have a short, warty tubercle in each interspace, the tubercle is long or conical in some species (e.g. S. dioica, S. flos-cuculi L., S. viscaria (L.) Raf.), and some do not have a tubercule (e.g. S. linicola)
      • Seeds may have a smooth surface (e.g. S. baccifera)

      Colour

      • Silene species seeds are generally dull dark grey or black (e.g. S. dioica), but may also be brown (e.g. S. conoidea, S. linicola)
      • The surface may be covered with a thin, dull yellowish tissue layer (‘bloom’) (e.g. S. conoidea, S. noctiflora, S. vulgaris) or a thicker, dull whitish layer (S. latifolia) that may be removed by friction or oils
      • S. baccifera has shiny black seeds
      • S. bupleroides seeds have a brown and grey streaked colour pattern
      • Immature seeds are shades of red or orange

      Sleepy catchfly (Silene antirrhina) seeds

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    >

    • Embryo

      Size

      • Embryo partially fills the seed

      Shape

      • Embryo linear, curved into a C-shape

      Endosperm

      • Endosperm translucent whitish, hard

      Other Features

      • Embryo in a peripheral position

    Identification Tips

    CONSEILS POUR L’IDENTIFICATION

    Features that distinguish Silene species from other genera include:

    • Fruit is a generally egg-shaped, many-seeded capsule opening at the top with 6-10 triangular valves, or a berry-like capsule (S. baccifera)
    • Seeds relatively small, length up to 1.9 mm (Bojňanský and Fargašová 2007; ISMA 2020)
    • Seeds D-shaped or reniform, compressed; hilum in the middle of the straighter edge, may be in a depression or notch
    • Hilum open, may be surrounded by 2 blunt protrusions (‘pads’) or a partial rim
    • Seed surface with stellate grooved reticulation in the majority of species, interspaces convex, with or without a warty tubercle
    • Embryo linear and curved into a C-shape, in a peripheral position

    Sleepy catchfly (Silene antirrhina) seeds

    Additional Botany Information

    AUTRES RENSEIGNEMENTS BOTANIQUES

    Flowers/Inflorescence

    • Inflorescences at branch tips or sometimes in branch axils; simple or branched; sometimes in condensed clusters with oldest flowers in the center, spike-like, or often branching but with few flowers or occasionally as solitary flowers; often hairy or glandular-hairy (FNA 1993+).
    • Inflorescence bracts are paired, herbaceous or dry, sometimes absent; secondary bracts are absent (FNA 1993+).
    • Flowers usually with erect stalks, rarely sessile or nearly so (FNA 1993+).
    • Flowers bisexual, sometimes unisexual on the same plant (monecious), or rarely unisexual on separate plants (dioecious) (FNA 1993+).
    • Sepals are always joined at the base into a (4)10–28(40) mm green, whitish, and/or purplish tube that is characteristically 10–30-veined, cylindrical to bell-shaped, urn-shaped, club-shaped, or rounded in cross-section; often inflated and bladder-like; may be membranous or rarely herbaceous (FNA 1993+).
    • Sepal lobes (5) are usually short and tooth-like, green or purplish and 1–5-veined; broadly triangular, elongated teardrop-shaped to oblong, or linear; usually shorter than the tube; with thin whitish margins and acute to obtuse tips (FNA 1993+).
    • Petals 5 free; white, pink, scarlet red, dusky purple, or off-white tinged with purple; usually with a conspicuous long, narrow claw, but sometimes small or rarely absent; with 2 ear-like appendages; 2 scales visible in the centre of the flower; petal limbs (beyond claw) are often long and conspicuous, elongated teardrop-shaped to egg-shaped and widest at the tip, usually dissected into 2 or sometimes 1-4 lobes or with many irregular teeth or fine hair-like tips, or very rarely entire (FNA 1993+; WFO 2024).
    • Stamens 10, rarely less or absent; often with 5 longer stamens opposite the petals and 5 shorter ones in between; filaments separate nearly to the base; nectaries present at base (FNA 1993+).
    • Infertile stamens are usually absent but rarely thread-like and up to 10 in female flowers in monoecious or dioecious species (FNA 1993+).
    • Styles 3 or 5, occasionally 2 or 4, rarely absent in male flowers; thread-like, 1.5–20 mm long (FNA 1993+; WFO 2024). Stigmas 3 or 5, occasionally 4, linear along the upper style surface (FNA 1993+).
    • Different species are typically distinguished by the presence of dioecious or monoecious flowers, the swollen calyx and its number of veins, notching or divisions of petals and petal colour, shape and characteristics of floral appendages, and capsule valve and teeth numbers.

    Vegetative Features

    • Herbs, annual, biennial, or perennial herbs or sub-shrubs (FNA 1993+; WFO 2024).
    • Stems simple or branched, rounded or angular in cross-section, often sprawling at the base with the tips pointing up or sometimes in dense tufts (FNA 1993+).
    • Taproots are often stout, sometimes slender, with a deep, branched, swollen, somewhat woody caudex often present; some species have rhizomes or stolons (FNA 1993+) that allow them to spread vegetatively.
    • Leaves mostly arranged in opposite pairs or occasionally whorled in groups of 3 or more; without any appendages at the base (FNA 1993+; WFO 2024).
    • Basal leaves with leaf stalks, sometimes slightly joined at the base or extending down the stem (FNA 1993+; WFO 2024).
    • Stem leaves are mostly sessile (FNA 1993+).
    • Leaf blades are 1–5-veined, linear to egg-shaped and widest at the tip, or sometimes spoon-shaped; herbaceous; tips are acute to obtuse (FNA 1993+).

    Silene laciniata flower shows deeply divided petal lobes and coronal appendages in the center.  Photo by Lyrae Willis from Nelson Canyon, New Mexico.

    Similar Species

    ESPÈCES SEMBLABLES

    Similar species are based on a study of seed morphology of various species, and those with similar dispersal units are identified. The study is limited by physical specimen and literature availability at the time of examination, and possibly impacted by the subjectivity of the authors based on their knowledge and experience. Providing similar species information for seed identification is to make users aware of similarities that could possibly result in misidentification.

    Agrostemma githago L.

    Agrostemma githago is an increasingly rare crop weed that is related to Silene (Firbank 1988). Seeds of A. githago are larger (diameter: 3-3.5 mm, Firbank 1988) than Silene species. A. githago seed is dull dark brown colour, has a depression or furrow near the hilum, and the warty tubercules on the surface are elongated spike-like or scale-like. Seeds of Silene species are generally a greyish-black colour, a central hilum, protuberances (‘pads’) or a collar around the hilum, do not have a furrow, and have smaller warty tubercles.

    Gypsophila vaccaria (L.) Sm. (syn = Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert)

    Gypsophila vaccaria is another formerly common crop weed that is becoming rare or extirpated (FNA 1993+). The seeds of G. vaccaria are larger (width: 2-2.5 mm, FNA 1993+) than Silene, inflated globose shaped, shiny black coloured, lack protuberances around the hilum, and the surface stellate grooved reticulation is faint, visible under ≥40x magnification. The seeds of Silene species are D-shaped, compressed, generally greyish-black coloured, have ‘pads’ or a collar around the hilum, and the stellate reticulation is visible under ≥10 x magnification.

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    Reference(s)

    Référence(s)

    Bojňanský, V. and Fargašová, A. 2007. Atlas of Seeds and Fruits of Central and East-European Flora: The Carpathian Mountains Region. Springer, The Netherlands. 1046 pp.

    Brouillet L., Desmet P., Coursol F., Meades S.J., Favreau M., Anions M., Bélisle P., Gendreau C., Shorthouse D. 2010+. Database of Vascular Plants of Canada (VASCAN). Online at http://data.canadensys.net/vascan Accessed April 11, 2024.

    Chandra, S., & Rawat, D. S. 2015. Medicinal plants of the family Caryophyllaceae: A review of ethno-medicinal uses and pharmacological properties. Integrative Medicine Research, 4(3), 123-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imr.2015.06.004

    Firbank, L.G. 1988. Biological flora of the British Isles No. 165: Agrostemma githago L. (Lychnis githago (L.) Scop.). Journal of Ecology 76: 1232-1246.

    Flora of China (FOC) 1994+. Silene Vol. 6 Page 66 (English edition). http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=130349 Accessed December 11, 2024.

    Flora of North America (FNA). 1993+. Flora of North America North of Mexico 25+ vols. New York and Oxford. http://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page Accessed April 11, 2024

    Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). 2024. Global Biodiversity Information Facility Secretariat. https://www.gbif.org/ Accessed April 11, 2024

    International Seed Morphology Association (ISMA). 2020. Method for Seed Size Measurement.  https://www.idseed.org/authors/details/method_for_seed_size_measurement.html

    Hakanson, A. I. (n.d.). Population monitoring protocol for Silene rectiramea (Grand Canyon campion) in Grand Canyon National Park. Ir.library.oregonstate.edu. https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/graduate_projects/t435gn23r?locale=zh Accessed April 11, 2024.

    Heap, I. 2024. The International Herbicide-Resistant Weed Database. Online. Available www.weedscience.org Accessed April 11, 2024.

    NatureServe Explorer 2.0. (n.d.). Explorer.natureserve.org. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.129643/Silene_degeneri Accessed April 11, 2024.

    Phytoalimurgia. 2016. Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke – Phytoalimurgia. https://phytoalimurgia.com/silene-vulgaris/

    Plants of the World Online (POWO). 2024. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published at http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/ Accessed April 11, 2024.

    Smithsonian. 2024. Botany Collections Search. Si.edu. https://collections.nmnh.si.edu/search/botany/?qt=Silene+degeneri

    University of Alaska Anchorage (UAA). 2011. Introduced Silene spp. in Alaska. Last Updated: 2011-02-08 by Helen Klein. https://accs.uaa.alaska.edu/wp-content/uploads/Silene_noctiflora_BIO_SINO.pdf

    United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Services (USDA-ARS). 2024. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch Accessed April 11, 2024.

    United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2024. The PLANTS Database. National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC, USA. https://plants.usda.gov/home Accessed April 11, 2024.

    World Flora Online (WFO). 2024. Available at: http://www.worldfloraonline.org Accessed April 11, 2024.

    Yashina, S., Gubin, S., Maksimovich, S., Yashina, A., Gakhova, E., & Gilichinsky, D. 2012. Regeneration of whole fertile plants from 30,000-y-old fruit tissue buried in Siberian permafrost. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(10), 4008-4013. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1118386109

    Author(s)

    AUTEUR(S)

    Lyrae Willis, Environmental Science Freelance Writer

    Jennifer Neudorf, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Canada  ssts@inspection.gc.ca

     

    contactus@idseed.org

    Last updated
    on 2023-03-27

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