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Sporobolus spp. R. Br.

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Family :

Famille :

Poaceae

Synonym(s) :

Synonyme(s) :

Agrosticula Raddi (USDA-ARS 2024)
Bauchea E. Fourn. (USDA-ARS 2024)
Cryptostachys Steud. (USDA-ARS 2024)
Diachyrium Griseb. (USDA-ARS 2024)
Solenachne Steud. (USDA-ARS 2024)
Spermachiton Llanos (USDA-ARS 2024)
Thellungia Stapf (USDA-ARS 2024)
Torgesia Bornm. (USDA-ARS 2024)
Triachyrum Hochst. (USDA-ARS 2024)

Common Name(s) :

Nom(s) commun(s) :

Dropseed

(English) (AOSA 2024a; USDA-ARS 2024; USDA-NRCS 2024)

Sporobolus airoides (alkali sacaton) caryopses in lateral view.  Scale in mm.

  • Sporobolus airoides (alkali sacaton) caryopses in lateral view.  Scale in mm.

  • Sporobolus airoides (alkali sacaton) caryopsis in embryo view.  Scale in mm.

  • Sporobolus airoides (alkali sacaton) caryopsis in hilum view.  Scale in mm.

  • Sporobolus airoides (alkali sacaton) caryopsis in lateral view.  Scale in mm.

  • Sporobolus airoides (alkali sacaton) florets.  Scale in mm.

  • Sporobolus airoides (alkali sacaton) floret in lemma view.  Scale in mm.

  • Sporobolus airoides (alkali sacaton) floret in lateral view.  Scale in mm.

  • Sporobolus airoides (alkali sacaton) floret in palea view.  Note the longitudinal split of the palea exposing the caryopsis.  Scale in mm.

  • Sporobolus contractus caryopses

  • Sporobolus contractus caryopsis

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Overview

Aperçu

Regulation :

Remarques Réglementation:

    Regulation Notes:

    • Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns & Tournay is listed as a Harmful Organism by French Polynesia (USDA-PCIT 2024).
    • Sporobolus poiretii is listed as a Harmful Organism by New Zealand (USDA-PCIT 2024).

    Distribution :

    Répartition :

    Sporobolus is a cosmopolitan genus with more than 160 species (FNA 1993+) to as many as 247 accepted species (GBIF 2024) native to tropical, sub-tropical, and warm-temperate regions throughout most of the world except for northeast Asia, Greenland, and parts of northern North America (POWO 2024). Sporobolus has been introduced into Denmark, Germany, Switzerland, Ireland, New Zealand and many Pacific island nations (POWO 2024). The genus has not been reported from cooler regions of eastern and northwestern Russia, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, Greenland, or parts of far northern North America (POWO 2024).

    In Canada, 15 species and 2 hybrids of Sporobolus are reported throughout the southern provinces (excluding Labrador) and in the Northwest Territory. Of those, 9 species are native and 4 are introduced. One of the hybrids is also native, while the other is introduced (Brouillet et al. 2010+).

    In the United States, Sporobolus is found native and introduced throughout the entire continental USA (excluding Alaska), Hawai’i, and some of the outlying island territories. Twenty-six species are native and three are introduced (Barkworth et al. 2003; POWO 2024; USDA-NRCS 2024). Of the native species, eight are endemic to the contiguous United States (Smith 2019; POWO 2024; USDA-NRCS 2024) including one narrow endemic Sporobolus interruptus Vasey which appears to have a very restricted distribution in north-central Arizona (Smith 2019; USDA-NRCS 2024).

    Habitat and Crop Association :

    Habitat et Cultures Associées :

    Sporobolus species inhabit a wide variety of habitats, including dry, open sites with sterile sandy or gravelly soils as well as alkaline, saline, calcareous, basalt, loamy, clay, and alluvial soils. Representative species of Sporobolus can be found in pastures, lawns, woodland and forest glades and margins, dry or wet savannas, lake shores ditches, roadsides, riparian areas, wet seeps and bogs, salt and brackish marshes, tidal mudflats , tallgrass and shortgrass prairies, sand prairies, prairie fens, chaparral, salt-desert scrub, desert grasslands, rocky outcrops, disturbed areas, and old agricultural fields (Barkworth et al. 2003; Tilley et al. 2009; Weakley et al. 2024).

    Economic Use, cultivation area, and Weed Association :

    Utilisation économique, zone de culture et association de mauvaises herbes :

    Cultivation of Sporobolus is mostly confined to pasturelands where their rapid growth, high adaptability to a range of environments, is useful for early season grazing; however, as the plants mature the leaves and stems may become tough and less palatable (Austin et al. 2011; Brakie 2013). However, they do not appear to be a pest in other agricultural croplands.

    Sporobolus heterolepis (A. Gray) A. Gray is a popular native North American grass often planted as a ground cover or an ornamental landscape plant (Mahr n.d.). Sporobolus junceus (P. Beav.) Kunth is another example of a native North American species used as an ornamental landscape plant (Brakie 2013).

    Sporobolus airoides (Torr.) Torr. is an alkaline-tolerant species widely used for stabilizing soils and as forage for horses and cattle in the arid and semiarid regions of the southwestern United States (Brakie and Anderson 2007). Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) A. Gray is an extremely drought tolerant species that is used to stabilize sand dunes and hillsides (Tilley et al. 2009). Sporobolus heterolepis and Sporobolus compositus (Poir.) Merr. are also frequently recommended for their high erosion control benefits, excellent resilience to roadside conditions, and superior ecosystem benefits (UNMCES n.d.).

    Sporobolus contractus Hitchc. also has potential for use in erosion control but is also recommended for wildlife food/cover and ecological and rangeland rehabilitation, especially in areas dominated by invasive perennial grasses (Thomas 2022).

    In seed testing in the United States, Sporobolus seeds found as contaminants in seed lots are generally classified as weed seeds, except when found in seed lots intended for use in range and revegetation situations (AOSA 2024b).

    Duration of Life Cycle :

    Durée du cycle vital:

    Perennial, annual

    Dispersal Unit Type :

    Type d’unité de dispersion :

    Utricle, achene

    General Information

    RENSEIGNEMENTS GÉNÉRAUX

    Sporobolus species are essential food sources for various wildlife, including deer, lagomorphs (rabbits and hares), birds, and insects, including moths and butterflies (Brakie and Anderson 2007; Carr 2009; Thomas 2022).

    Most Sporobolus species are prolific seed producers (Tilley et al. 2009; DiTomaso et al. 2013; Thomas 2022), allowing them to become rapidly established on disturbed or degraded sites, which makes them beneficial for erosion control and rangeland restoration (Lloyd-Reilley and Kadin 2002; Brakie and Anderson 2007; Carr 2009; Tilley et al. 2009; Thomas 2022). However, this also makes them potentially quite invasive outside their native ranges (Carr 2009; Tilley et al. 2009; Austin et al. 2011; DiTomaso et al. 2013). A single panicle in S. crytandrus, sand dropseed, can yield about 10,000 seeds (Tilley et al. 2009). This species produces approximately 12,345 seeds per gram (AOSA 2024a).

    Several native African and North American species, including Sporobolus pyramidalis P. Beauv., S. natalensis (Steud.) T. Durand & Schinz, S. jacquemontii Kunth, S. fertilis (Steud.) Clayton and Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns & Tournay are all considered extremely invasive in Australia and are difficult to distinguish from other pasture grasses (Barkworth et al. 2003; Austin et al. 2011; USDA-ARS 2024). They arrived there as contaminants in pasture seed (Austin et al. 2011). They are highly competitive, adaptable to a wide range of environmental conditions, especially drought and disturbance, and develop long-lived seed banks there, made worse by livestock preferences since the tough blades are difficult to graze, allowing them additional competitive advantages (Austin et al. 2011). S. fertilis, has developed resistance to dalapon and flupropanate herbicides, first reported in Australia in 2004 (Heap, 2024).

    Sporobolus indicus, also known as smutgrass, is considered highly invasive outside its native Asia. It produces large numbers of tiny seeds that, when damp, will stick to fur, feathers, feet, clothing, equipment, vehicles, and anything else, allowing them to spread. They also spread via water and mud and are often a contaminant in seeds. It frequently invades heavily grazed and poorly drained pastures in the southern USA, especially in California (WCNA n.d.).

    Ethnobotanical studies prior to the early 1970’s of North American Native tribes from the North American Enthnobotany Database (2003) provide a glimpse into some cultural uses for Sporobolus. They reported that the Apache, Chiricahua, Mescalero and White Mountain Apache, Hopi, Navajo, Keres, Kiawa, Ramah Navajo, and Papago Native Americans would use the grains of several Sporobolus species as a regular food source, or sometimes just as an emergency food. Additionally, the Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache, Zuni, Ramah Navajo, and Hopi would use the plants for building materials, scouring, weaving mats and rugs, as well as for making brushes and bedding. The Navajo-Ramah and Ojibwa used some species for medicinal (S. heterolepis) and as veterinary (S. cryptandrus) aids or used the roots in a decoction for liver and skin problems. The Keres, Kiowa, and Navajo used S. cryptandrus as fodder for livestock. Additionally, Sporobolus giganteus Nash (giant dropseed) plants and pollen were used by the Hopi for ceremonial purposes.

    Many authors studying the similarities of Sporobolus species with Calamovilfa Hack., Spartina Schreb., Crypsis Aiton, and other genera have shown molecular similarities that may require either a broad taxonomic treatment of Sporobolus (lumping them together) or the splitting of the genus into 6-7 additional genera. Additionally, some issues with nomenclatural priority may also require the renaming of the genus (Flora of SE USA 2023).

     

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    Sporobolus indicus (Smutgrass) infestation. Photo by John D. Byrd, Mississippi State University, Bugwood.org

    Identification

    Identification

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    >

    • Spikelet

      Size

      • Spikelet length: 0.8 – 3.5 (6) mm; usually small, rarely to 6 mm (Watson and Dallwitz 1992).
      • Glumes usually unequal with the upper (2nd) glume often longer than the lower (1st) glume or nearly equal in length (WFO 2024).
      • Glumes shorter or longer than the floret (Watson and Dallwitz 1992; WFO 2024).
      Note: spikelet and glume length vary depending on the species.

      Shape

      • Spikelets narrowly teardrop shaped (lanceolate) to egg-shaped, rounded to compressed in cross-section.
      • Glumes narrowly teardrop shaped (lanceolate) to egg-shaped, the tips are obtuse, acute, or long-tapering (acuminate) (WFO 2024).
      • Glumes awnless or rarely with a very short awn-like pointed tip (mucronate) (Watson and Dallwitz 1992; WFO 2024).
      Note: spikelet shape varies depending on the species.

      Surface Texture

      • Glumes thinly membranous or translucent to papery (chartaceous) (Watson and Dallwitz 1992; Barkworth et al. 2003).
      • Glumes usually hairless (Watson and Dallwitz 1992; Barkworth et al. 2003).
      • Glumes usually 1-nerved (sometimes without nerves) (Barkworth et al. 2003).

      Colour

      • Spikelets varying in colour from cream, yellow, brown, grey, green, purple or combinations of these colours, they may be evenly coloured or unevenly splotched or tinged with darker colours (Colbry 1957; Barkworth et al. 2003).

      Other Features

      • Typically, one (3), bisexual floret per spikelet (Barkworth et al. 2003).
      • Spikelet disarticulation occurs above the glumes (Barkworth et al. 2003) or sometimes remains intact until the seed is released from the fruit (WFO 2024).
      • Cleistogamous spikelets occasionally found in the lower leaf sheaths in some species (Barkworth et al. 2003).

    • Floret

      Size

      • Floret length: 0.7 – 10 (13) mm (Colbry 1957; Barkworth et al. 2003).
      Note: this represents a general range of floret lengths for the genus Sporobolus; within each species the range is much narrower.
      • Palea may be equal to or longer than lemma (Barkworth et al. 2003; WFO 2024).

      Shape

      • Floret shape oval to narrowly egg shaped; round in cross-section or laterally compressed (eFloras 2024).
      • Palea tip entire to deeply notched, keeled along the two nerves, often splitting between the two nerves as the fruit matures (Colbry 1957; Watson and Dallwitz 1992; Barkworth et al. 2003; WFO 2024).

      Surface Texture

      • Lemma usually membranous, may be papery (chartaceous), leathery (coriaceous), or hardened (indurate) in a few species (Colbry 1957).
      •  Lemma with 1(3) nerves (Barkworth et al. 2003; WFO 2024)
      • Lemma usually hairless (WFO 2024), may have short stiff hairs near lemma tip and along nerve in some species, or may be pubescent (e.g., S. clandestinus) (Colbry 1957).
      • Palea membranous to translucent (hyaline), hairless, 2-nerved, 2-keeled (Colbry 1957; Watson and Dallwitz 1992; Barkworth et al. 2003).

      Colour

      • Florets varying in colour from cream, yellow, brown, grey, green, purple or combinations of these colours, they may be evenly coloured or unevenly splotched or tinged with darker colours (Colbry 1957; Barkworth et al. 2003).

      Other Features

      • Callus glabrous or nearly so (Barkworth et al. 2003).

      Sporobolus airoides (alkali sacaton) florets.  Scale in mm.

    • Fruit (utricle or achene; Colbry 1957; Barkworth et al. 2003).

      Size

      • Fruit length: 0.4 – 3.6 mm; fruit width: 0.3 – 1.5 mm; fruit thickness: 0.2 – 1.4 mm (Colbry 1957; Barkworth et al. 2003). Note: this represents a general range of fruit sizes for the genus Sporobolus; within each species the range is much narrower.

      Shape

      • Fruit shape globose, ellipsoid, egg-shaped, spindle-shaped, or squarish; laterally compressed or nearly round in cross-section (Colbry 1957; Barkworth et al. 2003).

      Surface Texture

      • Pericarp thin and transparent to hard and opaque, smooth, wrinkled, striate, or longitudinally reticulate and usually loose fitting (Colbry 1957; Barkworth et al. 2003).

      Colour

      • Pericarp is transparent or may have red, purple or black striations and the colour of the seed is visible through the pericarp (Colbry 1957).
      • In S. heterolepis the pericarp is opaque, greyish yellow, greenish gray, or purplish splotched (Colbry 1957).

      Other Features

      • Pericarp of some species become mucilaginous if wet and the seed may slip out of the pericarp or be forcefully ejected from the fruit as the mucilaginous pericarp dries (Colbry 1957; Barkworth et al. 2003).
    <
    >

    • Seed

      Size

      • Seed sizes the same as fruit.

      Shape

      • Seed shapes the same as fruit.

      Surface Texture

      • Seed surface may be smooth or minutely pitted (Colbry 1957).

      Colour

      • Endosperm colour white, yellow, light brown, whitish brown, orange-brown, red-brown, black (Colbry 1957; Barkworth et al. 2003).
      • Scutellum the same colour as the endosperm or dark brown, reddish brown, greenish-black, or black (Colbry 1957).
      • Embryo root-shoot axis the same colour as the endosperm or the same colour as the scutellum (Colbry 1957).

      Other Features

      • Hilum at base of seed, oval.

      Sporobolus airoides (alkali sacaton) caryopses in lateral view.  Scale in mm.

    <
    >

    • Embryo

      Size

      • Embryo less than one-half to nearly the full the length of the seed (Colbry 1957).

      Shape

      • Embryo lateral (Martin 1942).

      Endosperm

      • Endosperm solid (Terrell 1971), transparent, semi-transparent, or opaque (Colbry 1957).

      Other Features

      • Embryo area usually readily apparent because of structural features or colour difference with endosperm, but sometimes inconspicuous (Colbry 1957).

      Sporobolus airoides (alkali sacaton) caryopsis in embryo view.  Scale in mm.

    Identification Tips

    CONSEILS POUR L’IDENTIFICATION

    • Lemmas membranous or papery, usually 1-nerved, unawned.
    • Paleas glabrous, 2-nerved, 2-keeled, often splitting between the nerves at maturity.
    • Although the fruits look like grass caryopses they are technically utricles or achenes because the pericarp is free from seed.
    • Pericarp may be mucilaginous when wet (in many species), falling free of the seed, while in other species the pericarp remains dry and partially attached to the seed.
    • Fruits/seeds are oval, egg-shaped, spindle-shaped, or squarish in outline.
    • Seed colour and embryo size are two important diagnostic features used to distinguish species of Sporobolus.Description from Barkworth et al. 2003.

    Sporobolus airoides (alkali sacaton) floret in palea view.  Note the longitudinal split of the palea exposing the caryopsis.  Scale in mm.

    Additional Botany Information

    AUTRES RENSEIGNEMENTS BOTANIQUES

    Flowers/Inflorescence

    • Inflorescences are open or condensed, branched (panicles) and are found at stem tips (terminal), and may be partially included in sheaths (FNA 1993+; WFO 2024); rarely, they may form a spike-like condensed panicles as in S. contractus Hitchc. (Thomas 2022).
    • Stamens (2)3 (FNA 1993+; WFO 2024).
    • Some species, such as S. clandestinus (Biehler) Hitchc. may have self-fertile spikelets enclosed in the lower sheaths (cleistogamous) (Barkworth et al. 2003).
    • Sporobolus can be confused with Crypsis but can be differentiated by having panicles 1 – 80 cm long, 2 – 600 mm wide, and can be dense or broadly open, whereas panicles in Crypsis are 0.3 – 7.5 cm long and 3 – 15 mm wide (Barkworth et al. 2003).

    Vegetative Features

    • Plants are annual or often perennial; usually tufted (cespitose), sometimes with creeping rhizomes, rarely with stolons (FNA 1993+; WFO 2024).
    • In some species the root system produces a dense, soil binding network of fibrous roots. For example, the root system of S. cryptandrus (Torr.) A Gray, sand dropseed, can spread up to 60 centimeters laterally and over 2.4 meters deep in sandy soil (Tilley et al. 2009).
    • Stems (culms) are 10-250 cm long, hairless, usually erect or rarely lying along the ground (prostrate) (FNA 1993+; WFO 2024).
    • Leaf sheaths are open and usually hairless but often with a thin margin of hairs at the tips (ciliate) (FNA 1993+).
    • Ligules are made of a row of hairs (FNA 1993+; WFO 2024).
    • Leaf blades are flat or with edges curling towards the top surface (involute), rarely rounded in cross-section (terete) (FNA 1993+; WFO 2024).
    • Calamovilfa species often resemble Sporobolus species in having hairy ligules, spikelets with 1 floret, and 1-veined lemmas. Still, they can usually be distinguished by having leaves that taper to a long point, a tendency to form larger clonal patches, and generally taller culms (Flora of SE USA 2023).

    Sporobolus airoides plant with fruits. Photo by Dave Powell, USDA Forest Service (retired), Bugwood.org

    Similar Species

    ESPÈCES SEMBLABLES

    Similar species are based on a study of seed morphology of various species, and those with similar dispersal units are identified. The study is limited by physical specimen and literature availability at the time of examination, and possibly impacted by the subjectivity of the authors based on their knowledge and experience. Providing similar species information for seed identification is to make users aware of similarities that could possibly result in misidentification.

    Sporobolus airoides (Torr.) Torr., alkali sacaton
    • Fruit length: 0.9 – 1.7 mm (average 1.1 mm); width 0.5 – 0.9 mm (average 0.7 mm); thickness 0.4 – 0.7 mm (average 0.5 mm).
    • Fruit shape oblong to oval in side-view.
    • Fruit evenly compressed laterally the full length of the fruit.
    • Embryo about one-half the length of the fruit or more.
    • Pericarp dark red or black striate or reticulate.
    • Endosperm and embryo similar in colour, yellowish brown to light brown, opaque.
    Measurements and description based on Colbry (1957).

    Sporobolus contractus Hitchc., spike dropseed
    • Fruit length: 0.8 – 1.2 mm (average 1.0 mm); width 0.4 – 0.8 mm (average 0.6 mm); thickness 0.2 – 0.5 mm (average 0.3mm).
    • Fruit broadly egg-shaped to broadly oval in side-view, pointed at base by extension of the embryo.
    • Fruit strongly compressed laterally.
    • Embryo usually less than one-half the length of the fruit, root-shoot axis raised, narrow, nearly straight.
    • Pericarp rusty or greenish striate.
    • Endosperm light yellowish brown or pale orange yellow, sometimes whitish; minutely pitted and internally strongly granularly mottled; opaque, semitranslucent or translucent.
    • Embryo conspicuous, rusty or light reddish brown coloured.
    Measurements and description based on Colbry (1957).

    Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) A. Gray, sand dropseed
    • Fruit length: 0.6 – 1.3 mm (average 0.8 mm); width: 0.3 – 0.8 mm (0.5 mm); thickness: 0.2 – 0.5 mm (average 0.3 mm).
    • Fruit egg-shaped in side-view, pointed at base by extension of the embryo.
    • Fruit compressed, broader at embryo end and narrower at style end of the fruit, lance-shaped in embryo-view.
    • Embryo about one-half the length of the fruit, root-shoot axis raised, narrow, nearly straight.
    • Pericarp very finely dark striate.
    • Endosperm orange, brownish orange or light reddish brown, with light reddish or rusty flecks of colour, usually pitted, sometimes granularly mottled, translucent, semitranslucent, or opaque.
    • Embryo inconspicuous, the same colour or slightly darker than the endosperm.
    Measurements and description based on Colbry (1957).

    Sporobolus heterolepis (A. Gray) A. Gray, prairie dropseed
    • Fruit length and thickness: 1.0 – 2.0 mm (average 1.5 mm).
    • Fruit pear-shaped to globose (Barkworth et al. 2003).
    • Pericarp hardened (indurate), pericarp not loose, indeshicent.
    • Pericarp smooth or minutely longitudinally reticulate, shiny.
    • Pericarp colour light brown, greyish yellow, and frequently greenish grey or purple splotched; opaque.
    • Seeds difficult to remove from fruit.
    • Seed surface longitudinally black or red striate or reticulate; opaque.
    • Seed irregularly egg-shaped, flattened on embryo side.
    • Embryo large, nearly the same length as the seed, scutellum broad, root-shoot axis short and narrow.
    • Endosperm shades of yellow, grey, greenish grey, light brown, or greyish red brown.
    • Embryo conspicuous, darker than the endosperm, almost black.
    Except as noted, measurements and description based on Colbry (1957).

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    Reference(s)

    Référence(s)

    Association of Official Seed Analysts (AOSA). 2024a. Rules for Testing Seeds, Vol. 1: Principles and Procedures. Association of Official Seed Analysts, Washington D. C.

    Association of Official Seed Analysts (AOSA). 2024b. Rules for Testing Seeds, Vol. 3: Uniform Classification of Weed and Crop Seeds. Association of Official Seed Analysts, Washington D. C.

    Association of Official Seed Analysts and Society of Commercial Seed Technologists (AOSA/SCST). 2024. Seed Identification List, Version 2.0. Consolidated Exam Committee. https://analyzeseeds.com/committees/consolidated-exam-committee/, Accessed August 15, 2024.

    Austin, P., March, N., and Johnson, K. 2011. Weedy Sporobolus grasses. Weed Management Guide. Biosecurity Queensland, DEEDI. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nathan-March/publication/328280009_Weed_Management_Guide_-_Weedy_Sporobolus_Grasses/links/5bc3f0a1458515a7a9e7a0b2/Weed-Management-Guide-Weedy-Sporobolus-Grasses.pdf

    Barkworth, M. E., Capels, K.M., Long, S., and Pie, M. B. 2003. Flora of North America, Vol. 25 Magnoliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Poaceae, part 2. Oxford University Press.

    Brakie, M. 2013. Plant Guide for Pineywoods dropseed (Sporobolus junceus). USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, East Texas Plant Materials Center. Nacogdoches, TX 75964. https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/plantguide/pdf/pg_spju.pdf

    Brakie, M. and Anderson, M. K. 2007. Plant Fact Sheet for Alkali Scaton, Sporobolus airoides (Torr.) Torr. USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, East Texas Plant Materials Center. https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/factsheet/pdf/fs_spai.pdf

    Brouillet, L., Desmet, P., Coursol, F., Meades, S.J., Favreau, M., Anions, M., Bélisle, P., Gendreau, C. and Shorthouse, D. 2010+. Database of Vascular Plants of Canada (VASCAN). Online at http://data.canadensys.net/vascan Accessed April 17, 2024.

    Carr, B. 2009. Plant Fact Sheet – Texas Dropseed, Sporobolus texanus Vasey. USDA NRCS James E. “Bud” Smith Plant Materials Center Knox City, Texas. https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/factsheet/pdf/fs_spte5.pdf

    Colbry, V. L. 1957. Diagnostic Characteristics of the Fruits and Florets of Economic Species of North American Sporobolus. In: Systematic Plant Studies, 1–24. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
    https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/27087/usnh_0034.01.pdf

    DiTomaso, J. M., Kyser G. B., et al. 2013. Weed Control in Natural Areas in the Western United States. Sporobolus indicus (L.) R. Br. Smutgrass. Weed Research and Information Center, University of California. https://wric.ucdavis.edu/information/natural%20areas/wr_S/Sporobolus.pdf

    eFloras. 2024. Flora of China. Sporobolus R. Br. https://efloras.org Accessed September 4, 2024.

    Flora of North America (FNA) North of Mexico. 1993+ 25+ vols. New York and Oxford, http://floranorthamerica.org/Main_Page Accessed April 17, 2024.

    Flora of SE USA. 2024. Sporobolus detail – FSUS. Fsus.ncbg.unc.edu. https://fsus.ncbg.unc.edu/main.php?pg=show-taxon-detail.php&taxonid=65831 Accessed April 24, 2024.

    Global Biodiversity Information Facility Secretariat (GBIF). 2024. https://www.gbif.org/ Accessed April 17, 2024

    Heap, I. 2024. The International Herbicide-Resistant Weed Database. Online. www.weedscience.org Accessed September 4, 2024.

    International Seed Testing Association (ISTA). 2024. Universal List of Species. Purity Committee. https://www.seedtest.org/en/services-header/tools/purity-committee/universal-list-species.html Accessed August 15, 2024.

    Lloyd-Reilley, J. and Kadin, E. 2002. Plant Fact Sheet – Big Sacaton, Sporobolus wrightii Munro ex Scribn. USDA NRCS Kika de la Garza Plant Materials Center, Kingsville, TX. https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/factsheet/pdf/fs_spwr2.pdf

    Mahr, S. 2024. Prairie dropseed, Sporobolus heterolepis. University of Wisconsin-Madison Extension. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/prairie-dropseed-sporobolus-heterolepis/ Accessed September 4, 2024.

    Martin, A. C. 1946. The comparative internal morphology of seeds. The American Midland Naturalist 36(3):513-660.

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    Author(s)

    AUTEUR(S)

    Lyrae Willis, BSc. Environmental Sciences

    Deborah J. Lionakis Meyer, California Department of Food and Agriculture (retired)

    contactus@idseed.org

    Last updated
    on 2023-03-27

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