Solanum nigrum
Family :
Famille :
Solanaceae
Synonym(s) :
Synonyme(s) :
Solanum schultesii Opiz (USDA-ARS 2024)
Common Name(s) :
Nom(s) commun(s) :
Black nightshade
(English) (USDA-ARS 2024)
Blackberry nightshade, common nightshade, poisonberry (English) (USDA-ARS 2024)
Morelle noire (French) (USDA-ARS 2024)
‘enab el-deeb (Arabic) (USDA-ARS 2024)
Schwarzer Nachtschatten (German) (USDA-ARS 2024)
Erva-moura, pimenta-de-galinha (Portuguese) (USDA-ARS 2024)
Hierba mora (Spanish) (USDA-ARS 2024)
Nattskatta (Swedish) (USDA-ARS 2024)
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) seeds
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) seeds
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) seeds
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) seed
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) seed
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) berry and seeds
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Overview
Aperçu
Regulation :
Remarques Réglementation:
Regulation Notes:
Distribution :
Répartition :
Solanum nigrum is native to western and southern Europe, the Mediterranean, north and tropical Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, India, and south and temperate eastern Asia; it has been introduced to North America, northern Europe and northern Asia, Australia, New Zealand, Indonesia, and other South Pacific Islands (POWO 2024).
In Canada, Solanum nigrum was introduced to British Columbia, Ontario, and Nova Scotia and may be present in most southern provinces (Brouillet et al. 2010+).
In the United States, Solanum nigrum is introduced to Washington, Oregon, California, New Mexico, Alabama, Florida, North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Maine, and Hawaii, the Virgin Islands, and Alaska (USDA-NRCS 2024).
Habitat and Crop Association :
Habitat et Cultures Associées :
Solanum nigrum can be found at forest edges, riparian areas, open scrub, woodlands, wooded and mesic grasslands, mountain slopes, and floodplains, and is weedy in waste places, cultivated areas, ruderal places, and roadsides in moist and dry situations from 0 to 2200(3000) m above sea level (FNA 1993+; CABI 2024; POWO 2024; WFO 2024).
Solanum nigrum has a long history of developing herbicide resistance to paraquat and atrazine in Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, and throughout Europe in Saccharum officinarum L. (sugar cane), Zea mays L. subsp. mays (corn), Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. (sweet potato), vegetable crops, orchards, and pastures (Heap 2024).
Solanum nigrum is problematic in horticulture and Beta vulgaris L. (sugarbeet and fodder beet) crops (Bayer Crop Science New Zealand n.d.). It is also common in Glycine max (L.) Merr. (soybean), Medicago sativa L. (alfalfa), and hay crops (Lingenfelter & Curran 2021). It is also found in Solanum lycopersicum L. (tomato), Solanum tuberosum L. (potato), Solanum melongena L. (eggplant), and Capsicum L. species (peppers), where it is an alternate host to many pests found on those same crops (Brueckmann 2024).
Other crops it has been reportedly found in include Allium cepa L. (onion), Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. (pineapple), Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (tea), Cicer arietinum L. (chickpea), Citrus L. species (citrus), Coffea L. species (coffee), Gossypium hirsutum L. (cotton), Helianthus annuus L. (sunflower), Hordeum L. species (barleys), Musa L. species (bananas), Musa textilis Née (manila hemp), Phaseolus lunatus L. (lima bean), Phaseolus vulgaris L. (common bean), Pisum sativum L. (pea), Sesamum indicum L. (sesame), Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (sorghum), Triticum aestivum L. (wheat), and Vitis vinifera L. (grapevine) (CABI 2024).
Economic Use, cultivation area, and Weed Association :
Utilisation économique, zone de culture et association de mauvaises herbes :
While Solanum nigrum is considered an agricultural pest in Europe and North America, large fruit varieties are semi-cultivated, wild-harvested, and occasionally commercially cultivated on a local scale in many developing countries worldwide, especially in Africa, Southeast Asia, and Indonesia, where domestication and cultivation increase its nutritional composition and reduce its toxicity compared to the wild plants (CABI 2024).
The leaves and shoots are eaten as vegetables in soups, stews, rice, and other dishes, and the ripe berries are eaten fresh and in salads and are often cooked into jams, pies, and preserves (Brueckmann 2024; CABI 2024; Specialty Produce n.d.). The berries are a source of calcium, vitamin C, vitamin A, iron, antioxidant anthocyanins, phosphorus, riboflavin, and niacin; however, the unripe berries contain solanine and should never be consumed (Specialty Produce n.d.).
Solanum nigrum is also used medicinally in many parts of the world, where the leaves, stems, and roots are used as a poultice on open wounds, boils, and sores (Brueckmann 2024; PFAF 2024). The whole plant is often used in traditional medicines as an antiperiodic, antiphlogistic, diaphoretic, diuretic, emollient, febrifuge, narcotic, purgative and sedative, while extracts are used for their analgesic, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory and vasodilator properties (PFAF 2024).
Solanum nigrum is only grown commercially on small-scale farms in some areas of the world, so information on weeds in those crops was not found.
General Information
RENSEIGNEMENTS GÉNÉRAUX
Solanum nigrum is one of the largest and most variable species of the Solanum genus and is often referred to as the Solanum nigrum complex of closely related species, with the greatest diversity and concentration in the New World tropics (CABI 2024). Numerous species are in this complex; many are often incorrectly referred to as Solanum nigrum (FNA 1993+).
The complex is typically characterized by their lack of prickles, white flowers, and green or black fruits arranged in umbel-like clusters, but also their taxonomical complexity with numerous morphological similarities, morphological variation in different environments, and high genetic variability that can make them difficult to distinguish (Rogers & Ogg 1981; Chauhan 2021; CABI 2024; personal observations). Some of the common species in this complex include S. americanum Mill. (American black nightshade), S. chenopodioides Lam. (tall nightshade), S. douglassi Dun., S. tarderemotum Bitter, S. memphiticum J. F. Gmel., S. sarrachoides Sendtn. (hairy nightshade), S. pseudogracile Heiser, S. interius Rydberg (plains black nightshade), S. villosum Mill. (woolly nightshade), S. scabrum Mill. (garden-huckleberry), S. retroflexum Dun. (sunberry), and S. physalifolium Rusby (Rogers & Ogg 1981; CABI 2024).
Since Linnaeus’s first description, more than 300 varieties, subspecies, and species have been named for Solanum nigrum, all now considered synonyms (Rogers & Ogg 1981). No currently accepted subspecies are listed (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024; WFO 2024).
Chauhan (2021) reports that Solanum nigrum is mostly an annual weed reproducing only by seeds but can be biennial or short-lived perennials in areas without frost. They typically produce 600–168,000 seeds per plant, but depending on the environment, they may produce up to 800,000. The seeds can remain viable for 8-39 years, depending on soil disturbances, and they remain viable after being eaten by birds and livestock. The seeds are typically dispersed through contaminated agricultural products, water, birds, and animals.
Solanum nigrum is considered by many sources as a plant of high or variable toxicity, with the green leaves, stems, green fruits, and seeds being considered toxic, with toxicity being higher during dry conditions and is not removed when plants are dried (Mosto & Landoni 1989; Lingenfelter & Curran 2021; CABI 2024; PFAF 2024); however, the toxic compound solanine is destroyed when placed in boiling water (Mosto & Landoni 1989).
It has also been consumed as a food for thousands of years, and many reports of toxicity have been due to misidentification (Specialty Produce n.d.). Rogers and Ogg (1981) reported that most reports of toxicity came from second-hand information or at a time when the taxonomy was less clear, and some may have resulted from high nitrate levels. They also refer to numerous more recent direct sources stating that they are not poisonous and can be eaten without toxic effects. This discrepancy between reports is likely due to the natural variability of Solanum nigrum and the significant number of toxic look-alikes; anyone consuming wild specimens should do so sparingly and only with precision identification (personal observations).
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Solanum nigrum plants growing with other weedy species (H. Zell, CC BY-SA 3.0, commons.wikimedia.org)
Identification
Identification
-
Berry
Size
- Berry diameter: 0.5-1 cm (FNA 1993+)
- Berry diameter: 6-10 mm (Edmonds and Chweya 1997; Särkinen et al. 2018; Knapp et al. 2019)
Shape
- Berry is globose
Surface Texture
- Berry surface is smooth when fresh, wrinkled when dried
Colour
- Berry colour is generally dull or slightly shiny purple or purplish-black when mature, some may be green or yellowish-green (Särkinen et al. 2018; Knapp et al. 2019)
Other Features
- Berries originating from Europe and North America lack the sclerotic granules (stone cells) generally found within berries of the Solanum Morelloid clade (Knapp et al. 2019)
- Berries that originate from Asia generally have 2 (-8) stone cells per berry, 0.5 in diameter and brown coloured (Särkinen et al. 2018)
- A 5-lobed (or pointed) fruiting calyx is attached when the berry is shed, lobes 1.0–2.0 mm long, spreading to reflexed backwards (Knapp et al. 2019)
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) berry and seeds
-
Seed
Size
- Seed size: length*: 1.3-2.0 mm; width: 1.0-1.6 mm
*Note: minimum and maximum based on 20 seeds within perianth in normal range of this species using image measurement protocol (ISMA 2020).
- Seed size from literature:
• Seed length: 1.7-2.4 mm (Edmonds and Chweya 1997)
• Seed length: 1.8–2.0 mm; width: 1.5–1.6 mm (Särkinen et al. 2018; Knapp et al. 2019)
• Note that seed size has high natural variation
Shape
- Seeds are generally oval-shaped with a pointed hilum end
- Shape may be variable within a berry; some seeds may be egg-shaped, D-shaped or round with a pointed hilum end, or teardrop-shaped
- Seeds are strongly compressed (flattened) in edge view
Surface Texture
- Surface texture ridged reticulate with wavy ridges and angular interspaces, visible under 16x and higher magnification
- Interspaces are deep along the edges of the seed and shallow in the center
- Interspaces elongated and deeper (rectangular) in hilum area with straight ridges
- Ridges may have a fringe of hairs if the thin outer layer of the seed is removed (Edmonds 1983). This may obscure the surface texture and make the interspaces look deep
Colour
- Seeds are generally light-yellow or yellow but can be dark brown or brown
Other Features
- Hilum is a short slit or small open hole near the pointed end, within a shallow notch
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) seeds
-
Embryo
Size
- Embryo partially fills the seed
Shape
- Embryo is linear and curved (Martin 1946)
Endosperm
- Endosperm soft, whitish translucent
Other Features
- Embryo position peripheral
Identification Tips
CONSEILS POUR L’IDENTIFICATION
Solanum nigrum is part of the Morelloid Clade and has these common features with related species:
- Fruit a generally globose, fleshy berry with a thin pericarp
- 5-parted calyx with features used in identification, may be shed with the berry or remain on the plant
- Seeds flattened, oval-shaped with a pointed hilum end
- Seeds with a ridged reticulate surface texture
- Surface may become hairy if a thin outer seed layer is removed (Edmonds 1983)
- Sclerotic granules (stone cells) present in many species
Solanum nigrum seeds and berries can be distinguished from similar species by:
- Generally dull, dark purple berries
- Fruiting calyx shed with the berry
- Seed texture with shallow interspaces in center of seed, deeper around the edges and hilum area
- Interspaces elongated in hilum area
- Stone cells generally not present
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) seed
Additional Botany Information
AUTRES RENSEIGNEMENTS BOTANIQUES
Flowers/Inflorescence
- Unbranched, occasionally forked inflorescences in umbel-like clusters, sometimes extended; (3)5–10-flowered (FNA 1993+; POWO 2024; WFO 2024).
- Inflorescence stalk is 0.3–2(3) cm long; slender; erect or ascending; may elongate in fruit (FNA 1993+; POWO 2024; WFO 2024).
- Flower stalks are 3–8.5(10) mm long, elongating to 12 mm in fruit; slender; curving downwards or ascending (FNA 1993+; POWO 2024).
- Calyx is 1.2–2.5 mm long, elongating to 3.5mm in fruit, bell-shaped; lobes are 0.3–1. 2 mm long and wide, egg-shaped and widest at either end, nearly elliptic, or somewhat triangular with acute to rounded tips and sparsely hairy, hairier towards the tip, but maybe hairless; unarmed (FNA 1993+; POWO 2024; WFO 2024).
- Corolla is usually white but may be cream or yellowish, with or without a conspicuous yellow-green eye in the centre, rarely flushed with purple or pale blue; (4)5–7(15) mm wide; spreading or star-like; (FNA 1993+; POWO 2024); petals are fused at the base.
- Corolla lobes are 1. 5–4(6) mm long by 0.8–2.3 mm wide; oblong or egg-shaped to elongated teardrop-shaped, rarely linear; tips are more or less acute; minutely hairy on the outside (POWO 2024; WFO 2024).
- Stamens equal; filaments 0.3–1. 5 mm long; often hairy; conspicuous oblong or ellipsoidal anthers 1. 5–2.5(2.8) mm long (POWO 2024; WFO 2024), usually yellow.
- Ovary 1 mm, more or less round, hairless; straight or curved style 2-4.5 mm, often hairy at the base; stigma protrudes beyond anthers by up to 2 mm (POWO 2024; WFO 2024)
- S. sarrachoides is similar, but its greenish fruit is enclosed in an enlarged persistent calyx (CABI 2024).
- S. triflorum Nutt. is also similar, but its flowers are in groups of 1-3, and the mature fruits are marbled white and green (CABI 2024).
Vegetative Features
- Erect or widely spreading, sometimes forming dense clumps to 2 m across; (5)25–70(150) cm tall; stems frequently flushed with purple, hairy to woolly hairy, sometimes glandular-hairy or stiff-hairy, may become hairless with age (FNA 1993+; POWO 2024), from a taproot and numerous fibrous roots.
- Leaves solitary or sometimes paired; leaf-stalk 0.3–6.5 cm long, and slightly winged towards the end, appressed hairy or glandular (POWO 2024; WFO 2024).
- Leaf blades are simple, 2–14 cm long by 0.7–7.3 cm wide, elliptic to egg-shaped or nearly elongated teardrop-shaped; bases appearing somewhat cut-off, rounded, or wedge-shaped, may be oblique and usually taper slightly down the leaf stalk; tips are acute, obtuse, or tapering to a point; margins are entire, coarsely square-toothed, wavy, or occasionally lobed; surfaces are green and hairy with more hairs along the veins and towards the margins but may become hairless with age (FNA 1993+; POWO 2024).
- S. americanum is similar but has translucent, paler green leaves and glossier fruits (CABI 2024).
- S. retroflexum is very similar but has shallowly to deeply lobed leaves that are paler below than above (CABI 2024).
Solanum nigrum plants showing erect but widely spreading stems (Krzysztof Ziarnek, Kenraiz, CC BY-SA 4.0, commons.wikimedia.org)
Similar Species
ESPÈCES SEMBLABLES
Similar species are based on a study of seed morphology of various species, and those with similar dispersal units are identified. The study is limited by physical specimen and literature availability at the time of examination, and possibly impacted by the subjectivity of the authors based on their knowledge and experience. Providing similar species information for seed identification is to make users aware of similarities that could possibly result in misidentification.
Similar Solanum species comparison chart (information from Särkinen et al. 2018; Knapp et al. 2019)
| Berry diameter | Berry colour | Calyx lobe | Seed length | Seed width | Stone cells | |
| S. nigrum L. | 6-10 mm | Dull purple, green | 1.0-2.0 mm | 1.8-2.0 mm | 1.5-1.6 mm | Generally absent |
| S. americanum Mill. | 4–9(-12) mm | Shiny purple | 1(-2) mm | 1.0-1.5 mm | 0.8–1.3 mm | Absent or 2–4(6) |
| S. emulans Raf. | 6-8 mm | Dull purple | 6–8 mm | 1.6–1.8 mm | 1.0–1.2 mm | 6–9(10) |
| S. nitidibaccatum Bitter | 4-13 mm | Shiny green and white | 4–13 mm | 2.0–2.2 mm | 1.2–1.4 mm | (1-)2–3 |
| S. saracchoides Sendtn. | 6-9 mm | Dull greenish-brown | 5.5–8.0 mm | 1.3–1.7mm | 1.0–1.5 mm | 4-6 |
| S. scabrum Mill. | 10-20 mm | Shiny or dull purplish-black | 2.0–3.0 mm | 2–2.8 mm | 1.5–1.8 mm | Absent |
| S. villosum Mill. | 8.5–10 mm | Shiny orange or yellow | 2.0–3.0 mm | 1.8–2.2 mm | 1.5–1.7 mm | Generally absent
|
Solanum americanum Mill.
S. americanum is globally distributed, especially in the tropics and subtropics, is most common in Central America, the Caribbean and the coasts of North America (Knapp et al. 2019). The berry colour is shiny, with the calyx remaining on the plant compared to the dull colour of S. nigrum berries with a calyx that is shed with the fruit. Seeds are generally smaller than S. nigrum, and the reticulation interspaces are smaller with an equal depth over the seed surface. Stone cells may be absent like S. nigrum in Australia, South Pacific and South America, but can have up to 6 in North America, Mexico, Eurasia and Africa populations (Särkinen et al. 2018
Solanum emulans Raf.
S. emulans is generally not found outside North America, except in botanical garden collections (Särkinen et al. 2018; Knapp et al. 2019). The berries are shiny purple with longer calyx lobes than S. nigrum with dull purple berries. The reticulate texture of S. emulans seed has smaller interspaces than S. nigrum, with an equal depth over the seed surface.
Solanum nitidibaccatum Bitter
S. nitidibaccatum is native to temperate North and South America, now globally distributed (FNA 1993+). The berries are shiny green or brownish-green when mature, and have white patches, compared to the dull purple berries of S. nigrum. The reticulate texture of the seeds has smaller interspaces than S. nigrum, of an equal depth over the surface, and the hilum end is generally orange-coloured with short interspaces. Stone cells are generally present.
Solanum saracchoides Sendtn.
S. saracchoides is native to southern South America and has been introduced globally as an arable weed, but can be occasionally found in North America (Särkinen et al. 2018; Knapp et al. 2019). The berries are greenish-brown coloured with longer calyx lobes than the purple berries of S. nigrum. Seeds are generally more narrow, with smaller reticulate interspaces than S. nigrum, and have an equal depth over the seed surface.
Solanum scabrum Mill.
S. scabrum is native to tropical Africa, and has been introduced globally as a cultivated plant. The berry is larger than S. nigrum, a shiny colour with a generally larger calyx that remains on the plant compared to the dull colour and the smaller calyx of S. nigrum that is shed with the berry. The seeds look similar to S. nigrum, but are generally longer, and greyish-yellow or occasionally purplish coloured.
Solanum villosum Mill.
S. villosum is native to Europe, common in the Mediterranean region, and is cultivated for fruit in eastern Africa (Knapp et al. 2019). The berries are shiny orange or yellow with the calyx remaining on the plant compared to the dull purple berries of S. nigrum, shed with the calyx attached. The reticulate texture of the seed has smaller interspaces than S. nigrum with an equal depth over the seed surface. Seeds may be reddish or brownish coloured. Stone cells are generally absent like S. nigrum, but 1-2 may be found in North African and Arabian material (Särkinen et al. 2018).
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Solanum americanum
Solanum emulans
Solanum nitidibaccatum
Comparison Window
Fenêtre de comparaison
MAIN SPECIES
ESPÈCES PRINCIPALES
Solanum nigrum
Solanum nigrum
Solanaceae
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) seeds
MAIN SPECIES
ESPÈCES PRINCIPALES
Solanum nigrum
Solanum nigrum
Solanaceae
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) seeds
MAIN SPECIES
ESPÈCES PRINCIPALES
Solanum nigrum
Solanum nigrum
Solanaceae
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) seed
MAIN SPECIES
ESPÈCES PRINCIPALES
Solanum nigrum
Solanum nigrum
Solanaceae
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) seed
MAIN SPECIES
ESPÈCES PRINCIPALES
Solanum nigrum
Solanum nigrum
Solanaceae
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) berry and seeds
SIMILAR SPECIES
ESPÈCES SEMBLABLES
Solanum americanum
Solanum americanum
Solanaceae
Solanum americanum seeds
SIMILAR SPECIES
ESPÈCES SEMBLABLES
Solanum americanum
Solanum americanum
Solanaceae
Solanum americanum seed
SIMILAR SPECIES
ESPÈCES SEMBLABLES
Solanum americanum
Solanum americanum
Solanaceae
Solanum americanum seeds
SIMILAR SPECIES
ESPÈCES SEMBLABLES
Solanum americanum
Solanum americanum
Solanaceae
Solanum americanum seed
SIMILAR SPECIES
ESPÈCES SEMBLABLES
Solanum americanum
Solanum americanum
Solanaceae
Solanum americanum crushed berry with seeds and stone cells
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Reference(s)
Référence(s)
Bayer Crop Science New Zealand. n.d. Black Nightshade Weed Control. https://www.cropscience.bayer.co.nz/pests/weeds/black-nightshade
Brouillet L., Desmet P., Coursol F., Meades S.J., Favreau M., Anions M., Bélisle P., Gendreau C., Shorthouse D. 2010+. Database of Vascular Plants of Canada (VASCAN). Online at http://data.canadensys.net/vascan Accessed November 29, 2024.
Brueckmann, D. S. 2024. Black nightshade. Oisat.org. http://www.oisat.org/pests/weeds/broad_leaf_weeds/black_nightshade.html
Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International (CABI). 2024. CABI Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org Accessed November 30, 2024.
Chauhan, B. S. 2021. Biology and Management of Problematic Crop Weed Species. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2019-0-04831-5
Edmonds, J.M. 1983. Seed coat structure and development in Solanum L. section Solanum (Solanaceae). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 87: 229-246.
Edmonds, J.M. and Chweya, J.E. 1997. Black nightshades: Solanum nigrum L. and related species. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Italy. 113 pp.
Flora of North America (FNA) Editorial Committee, eds. 1993+. Flora of North America North of Mexico [Online]. 22+ vols. New York and Oxford. http://beta.floranorthamerica.org Accessed November 29, 2024.
Heap, I. 2024. The International Herbicide-Resistant Weed Database. Online. Available www.weedscience.org Accessed November 30, 2024.
Knapp, S., Barboza, G.E., Bohs, E. and Särkinen, T. 2019. A revision of the Morelloid Clade of Solanum L. (Solanaceae) in North and Central America and the Caribbean. PhytoKeys 123: 1–144.
Lingenfelter, D. and Curran, W.S. 2021. Management of Eastern Black Nightshade in Agronomic Crops. (2021). Psu.edu. https://extension.psu.edu/management-of-eastern-black-nightshade-in-agronomic-crop
Martin, A.C. 1946. The comparative internal morphology of seeds. The American Midland Naturalist 36: 513-660.
Mosto, H.A. and de Landoni, J.H. 1989. Solanum nigrum L. (PIM 501). https://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/plant/solanum.htm
Plants For a Future (PFAF) Database. 2024. Solanum nigrum Black Nightshade, Common Nightshade, Poisonberry, Black Nightshade. Pfaf.org. https://pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?LatinName=Solanum+nigrum
Plants of the World Online (POWO). 2024. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published at http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org Accessed November 29, 2024.
Rogers, B. and Ogg, A. 1981. Biology of the Weeds of Solanum nigrum complex in North America. Agricultural Research Western Region Science and Education Administration, USDA, Oakland, CA.
Särkinen, T., Poczai, P., Barboza, G.E., van der Weerden, G.M., Baden, M. and Knapp, S. 2018. A revision of the Old World Black Nightshades (Morelloid clade of Solanum L., Solanaceae). PhytoKeys 106: 1–223.
Specialty Produce. n.d. Black Nightshade Berries. Specialtyproduce.com. https://specialtyproduce.com/produce/Black_Nightshade_Berries_12970.php
United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Services (USDA-ARS). 2024. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch Accessed November 29, 2024.
United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2024. The PLANTS Database. National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC USA. https://plants.usda.gov/home Accessed November 29, 2024.
World Flora Online (WFO). 2024. Available at: http://www.worldfloraonline.org Accessed November 29, 2024.