Français
Donate
Donner

Fact Sheets

FICHES DE
RENSEIGNEMENTS

Back To Index
print

Cenchrus americanus (L.) Morrone

Overview
General Information
ID Info
Similar Species
Need ID Help?
Aperçu
Renseignements Généraux
Informations D'identification
Espèces Semblables
Besoin d'aide pour l'identification?

Family :

Famille :

Poaceae

Synonym(s) :

Synonyme(s) :

Panicum americanum L. (basionym) (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Alopecurus typhoides Burm. f. (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Chaetochloa glauca (L.) Scribn. (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Chamaeraphis glauca (L.) Kuntze (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Holcus spicatus L. (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Panicum glaucum L. (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Panicum spicatum (L.) Roxb. (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke subsp. americanum (USDA-ARS 2024)
Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. (Barkworth et al. 2003; POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. subsp. glaucum (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Pennisetum leonis Stapf & C. E. Hubb. (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Pennisetum spicatum (L.) Körn. (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Pennisetum typhoides (Burm. f.) Stapf & C. E. Hubb. (USDA-ARS 2024)
Pennisetum typhoideum Rich. (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Setaria glauca (L.) P. Beauv. (POWO 2024; USDA-ARS 2024)
Setaria glauca (L.) P. Beauv. subsp. glauca (USDA-ARS 2024)
Setaria glauca (L.) P. Beauv. var. glauca (USDA-ARS 2024)

Common Name(s) :

Nom(s) commun(s) :

Pearl millet

(English) (Wiersema and León 1999; AOSA 2024; POWO 2024; USDA-NRCS 2024)
Bulrush millet (English) (Wiersema and León 1999)
Cattail millet (English) (Wiersema and León 1999; USDA-ARS 2024)
Spiked millet (English) (Simpson and Ogorzaly 2001)
Bullrush millet (English) (Simpson and Ogorzaly 2001)
Dukhn (Arabic) (Brunken et al. 1977)
Millet à chandelles (French) (Rehm 1994; Wiersema and León 1999)
Millet perlé (French) (Rehm 1994; Wiersema and León 1999; van Wyk 2005)
Perlhirse (German) (Rehm 1994; Wiersema and León 1999)
Rohrkolbenhirse (German) (van Wyk 2005)
Bajra (Hindi) (Wiersema and León 1999; van Wyk 2005)
Bajira (Hindi) (Rehm 1994; Wiersema and León 1999)
Miglio perla (Italian) (van Wyk 2005)
Tounin kibi (transcribed Japanese) (van Wyk 2005)
Milheto (Portuguese) (Rehm 1994; Wiersema and León 1999)
Milhete (Portuguese) (van Wyk 2005)
Milho africano (Portuguese) (van Wyk 2005)
Mijo perla (Spanish) (van Wyk 2005)
Mawele (Swahili) (van Wyk 2005)
Yu gu (transcribed Chinese 御谷) (eFloras 2024)

Cenchrus americanus [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] (pearl millet) caryopses, embryo and hilum views. Scale in mm.

  • Cenchrus americanus [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] (pearl millet) caryopses, embryo and hilum views. Scale in mm.

  • Cenchrus americanus [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] (pearl millet) caryopses

  • Cenchrus americanus [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] (pearl millet) caryopsis

  • Cenchrus americanus [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] (pearl millet) fascicles containing one or more spikelets. Scale in mm.

  • Cenchrus americanus   [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] (pearl millet) fascicle containing two spikelets. Scale in mm.

Explore More :

Explore plus :

Overview

Aperçu

Regulation :

Remarques Réglementation:

    Regulation Notes:

    Cenchrus spp., all that have burs, are listed as Harmful Organisms by Australia and Nauru (USDA-PCIT 2024).

    Cenchrus spp. are listed as Harmful Organisms in China (USDA-PCIT 2024).

    Distribution :

    Répartition :

    Native to Angola, Benin, Burkina, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Gabon, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Togo, Zambia, Zaïre (POWO 2024). The plant is widely introduced and cultivated in other African countries, Europe (Spain and Italy), temperate and tropical Asia, and North and South America (POWO 2024).

    Habitat and Crop Association :

    Habitat et Cultures Associées :

    Cenchrus americanus is well adapted to regions characterized by low annual rainfall (average 25 – 80 cm) to drought conditions, high temperatures, and low soil fertility (Brunken et al. 1977; ALA 2024).

    Economic Use, cultivation area, and Weed Association :

    Utilisation économique, zone de culture et association de mauvaises herbes :

    Cenchrus americanus is regarded as the world’s sixth most important cereal grain (Satyavathi et a. 2021). As a grain crop for human consumption, it is widely grown in arid and semi-arid tropical regions of Africa and Asia (Brunken et al. 1977; Satyavathi et al. 2021).

    C. americanus is a valuable livestock feed widely grown for forage and fodder in the United States and elsewhere (other than Africa and India) (Sheahan 2014; eFloras 2024; PV 2024). In the United States, the grain crop is used primarily for poultry feed and wild bird seed mixtures (Myers 2002; Sheahan 2014).

    Several ornamental cultivars of C. americanus have been developed for distinctive landscape and garden display. These cultivars have large seed heads in colours of deep purple, dark brown, or nearly black, and leaves in various shades of green to deep purple (Mahr 2024). When the seed heads are left until full maturity, they provide a valuable food source for wild birds (Mahr 2024).

    In Africa, the most serious weed affecting C. americanus is Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth. (purple witchweed), a parasitic weed that causes severe crop losses in the Sahel region (PV 2024).

    Duration of Life Cycle :

    Durée du cycle vital:

    Annual

    Dispersal Unit Type :

    Type d’unité de dispersion :

    Caryopsis, Fascicle

    General Information

    RENSEIGNEMENTS GÉNÉRAUX

    Native to western Africa, Cenchrus americanus is believed to have been domesticated in the West Africa Sahel region more than 4,000 years ago and spread eastward to India around 3,000 years ago (van Wyk 2005; Satyavathi et al. 2021). The plants are more drought tolerant than other types of cereals and perform well on nutrient-poor soils (Simpson and Ogorzaly 2001).

    C. americanus is an important food staple for 90 million people in the Sahelian region of Africa and northwestern India (Satyavathi et al. 2021). The grain is boiled to make porridge or prepared like rice, it is ground into flour and used to make flatbread, it can be milled into a paste and extruded to make breakfast cereals and pasta, and it is used as a source of malt for brewing traditional beer (Simpson and Ogorzaly 2001; van Wyk 2005; ALA 2024). The grain is gluten free, has a higher crude protein content compared to other cereal crops, is a rich source of vitamins and minerals, and has a higher quantity of slowly digestible starch and resistant starch thus providing a lower glycemic index (Satyavathi et al. 2021; Dube 2023).

    C. americanus is widely used for livestock grazing, silage, hay, and green chop (Sheahan 2014; PV 2024). It does not produce prussic acid or tannins making it safe to use for horses. However, under drought or cold weather stress plants can accumulate toxic levels of nitrate (Sheahan 2014; Jennings et al. 2020). The grain is used for poultry feed and is also sold in birdseed mixes (Mahr 2024).

    In C. americanus the caryopses are retained in the inflorescence due to the lack of callus formation at maturity. The lack of callus formation is believed to be controlled by three recessive genes that appear to have an additive effect toward the resilience of the inflorescence; possession of one, two, or all three genes making the inflorescence weakly to strongly non-shattering (Brunken et al. 1977).

    The genus Cenchrus now includes several species of economic importance formerly included in the genus Pennisetum. In addition to C. americanus, crops include C. ciliaris L. (buffelgrass), C. clandestinus (Hochst. ex Chiov.) Morrone (Kikuyu grass), and C. purpureus (Schumach.) Morrone (napiergrass) grown for fodder, forage, erosion control, turf, and/or ornamental purposes. Some species grown as ornamental grasses include C. longisetus M. C. Johnst. (feathertop), C. setaceus (Forssk.) Morrone (fountain grass), C. orientalis (Rich.) Morrone (Oriental fountain grass), and C. purpurascens Thunb. (foxtail fountain grass). Several former Pennisetum species now included in Cenchrus have been declared federal noxious weed disseminules in the United States, including C. clandestinus, C. caudatus (Schrad.) Kuntze (African feathergrass), C. pedicellatus (Trin.) Morrone (kyasuma grass or hairy fountain grass), and C. setosus Sw. (thin napier grass) (Scher et al. 2015). These species and the following species have been declared harmful organisms in some other countries: C. longisetus, C. purpurascens, C. purpureus, and C. setaceus (note: listed as species of Pennisetum; USDA-PCIT 2024). Traditional Cenchrus species, such as C. echinatus L. (southern sandbur), C. longispinus (Hack.) Fernald (longspine or mat sandbur), C. spinifex Cav. (coast or field sandbur) and others known for their hard spiny burs are classified as noxious weed seeds or as harmful organisms in Australia, China, Nauru, and in various regions of the United States (USDA-AMS 2024; USDA-PCIT 2024).

    .

    Identification

    Identification

    <
    >

    • Fascicle

      Size

      • Fascicle length*: 3.6 – 5.4 mm (average 4.3 mm); width*: 2.9 – 4.7 mm (average 3.8 mm).
      • Fascicle stalk length: 1 – 28 mm (Barkworth et al. (2003).
      • Outer bristle length: 0.5 – 6 mm. (Barkworth et al. (2003).
      • Inner bristle length: 4 – 6 mm. (Barkworth et al. (2003).
      • Primary bristle length: 5.5 – 6 mm long.
      • Spikelet length: 3 – 7 mm. (Barkworth et al. (2003).
      • Lower glume absent or up to 1.5 mm long. (Barkworth et al. (2003).
      • Upper glume length: 0.5 – 3.5 mm long. (Barkworth et al. (2003).
      *Note: minimum and maximum based on a random selection of 11 fascicles in normal range of this species using image measurement protocol (ISMA 2020).

      Shape

      • Fascicles are somewhat inverted triangle-shaped consisting of a stalk and two whorls of outward spreading bristles subtending one or more spikelets.
      • Inner bristles are somewhat flattened and wider than the outer bristles.
      • Outer bristles are slim and cylindrical.
      • Fascicle bristles are separate for their entire length (i.e., not fused).
      • Spikelets are inverted egg-shaped (obovate).

      Surface Texture

      • Fascicle bristles are covered with short stiff upward pointing hairs (antrorsely scabrous).
      • Inner and primary bristles also have long, spreading, widely spaced hairs along the margins.
      • Fascicle stalk covered with long spreading hairs.
      • Lower glume (if present) without nerves.
      • Upper glume 3 – 5 nerved.

      Colour

      • Fascicle colour various shades of yellowish brown to dark brown, grey, or purple.

      Other Features

      • Each spikelet consists of one or rarely two glumes, a lower sterile or staminate floret, and a fertile upper floret.
      • At maturity the fascicles do not disarticulate from the inflorescence.

      Cenchrus americanus [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] (pearl millet) fascicles containing one or more spikelets. Scale in mm.

    • Sterile (lower) floret

      Size

      • Sterile lemma 1.5 – 6 mm long (Barkworth et al. 2003).
      • Sterile palea rudimentary or fully developed, shorter than or equal to the lemma.

      Shape

      • Sterile lemma oval to egg-shaped.
      • Sterile palea usually folded inward longitudinally along the keels.

      Surface Texture

      • Sterile lemma leathery to papery and glabrous centrally, becoming membranous towards the margins, with short hairs along the margins.
      • Sterile lemma 3 – 7 nerved.
      • Sterile palea papery to membranous, usually sparsely long hairy between keels and covered with long hairs from keels to the margins.

      Colour

      • Sterile lemma various shades of light yellowish to dark brown, grey, or purple.

    • Fertile (upper) floret

      Size

      • Fertile lemma length: 4.3 – 7 mm (Barkworth et al. 2003).
      • Fertile palea length: 3.4 – 3.9 mm long (Barkworth et al. 2003).

      Shape

      • Fertile inverted egg-shape (obovate).

      Surface Texture

      • Fertile lemma leathery and shiny centrally, margins thin and papery, dull, granular to bubbled, covered with long hairs, some hairs have swollen bases.
      • Fertile lemma 5 – 7 nerved.
      • Fertile palea flat, papery in center and membranous toward the margins, sparsely hairy along and between the nerves, densely long hairy beyond the nerves to the margins, the hairs may or may not have swollen bases.

      Colour

      • Fertile lemma and palea various shades of light yellowish to dark brown, grey, or purple.

      Other Features

      • Caryopsis usually protrudes beyond the tip of the fertile floret.

    • Caryopsis

      Size

      • Caryopsis length*: 2.3 – 4.5 mm (average 3.3 mm); width*: 1.6 – 2.8 mm (average 2.0 mm).
      *Note: minimum and maximum based on a random selection of 20 caryopses in normal range of this species using image measurement protocol (ISMA 2020).

      Shape

      • Caryopsis outline shape egg-shaped to wedge-shaped (pointed at the embryo end).
      • Caryopsis cross-sectional shape round, oval, or angular.
      • Hilum oval and located at the narrow end of the caryopsis.

      Surface Texture

      • Surface smooth or slightly wrinkled.
      • Surface has a velvety reflective sheen.
      • Embryo regions longitudinally wrinkled.
      • Caryopsis may have a small bump or scar at the apex where the style was attached.

      Colour

      • Caryopsis colour, depending on cultivar, various shades of white, yellow, bluish-grey, light brown, purple, or a combination of colours.
      • The hilum dark reddish-brown in colour, noticeable darker than the body of the caryopsis.
      • The embryo is the same color as the body of the caryopsis.

      Other Features

      • The caryopsis protrudes from the lemma and palea at maturity.

      Cenchrus americanus [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] (pearl millet) caryopses, embryo and hilum views. Scale in mm.

    <
    >
    <
    >

    • Embryo

      Size

      • Embryo is about two-thirds the length of the caryopsis.

      Shape

      • Embryo is oval to egg-shaped.

      Endosperm

      • Endosperm is solid (Terrell 1971).

      Other Features

      • Embryo in the lateral position (Martin 1946).

      Cenchrus americanus [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] (pearl millet) caryopses, embryo and hilum views. Scale in mm.

    Identification Tips

    CONSEILS POUR L’IDENTIFICATION

    • In C. americanus, as in many other species of Cenchrus, spikelets are grouped into clusters of two or more surrounded by numerous bristles, all attached at the base to a short stalk. This structure is called a fascicle.
    • The bristles are usually covered with short, stiff, upward pointing hairs (antrorsely scabrous).
    • The bristles are separate for their entire length (i.e., not fused as in some bur forming species of Cenchrus).
    • In C. americanus the bristles are usually shorter than the spikelets.
    • The caryopses protrude beyond the lemma and palea and the long spike-like inflorescence looks like it is covered with hundreds of small pearls.
    • The inflorescence does not disarticulate at maturity and must be manually broken apart to release the caryopses.
    • C. americanus is usually marketed as free caryopses.
    • The caryopses are broad and round at the apex and somewhat pointed at the embryo end.

    Cenchrus americanus [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] (pearl millet) caryopses

    Additional Botany Information

    AUTRES RENSEIGNEMENTS BOTANIQUES

    Flowers/Inflorescence

    • Inflorescence panicle terminal, linear to broadly oval, spike-like, dense, 10 – 150 (200) cm long and 1.5 – 2.5 (7) cm wide.
    • Rachis hairy.
    • Panicle branches shortened into fascicles consisting of 1 – 9 spikelets enclosed by two whorls of bristles.
    • Fascicles persistent on inflorescence at maturity, 33 – 160 fascicles per cm.
    • Outer and inner fascicle bristles are usually shorter than the spikelets.
    • 44 – 131 outer bristles per fascicle.
    • 6 – 19 inner bristles per fascicle.
    • Primary fascicle bristle (1) located immediately below the spikelet, usually noticeably longer than the other bristles.
    • At maturity the caryopses protrude from the florets giving the inflorescence the appearance of a densely packed cluster of pearls.
    • Plants can produce up to 15 inflorescences.
    • Each inflorescence may yield up to 2000 caryopses.

    (Roshevits 1980; Hedberg et al. 1995; Barkworth et al. 2003; Sheahan 2014; eFloras 2024)

    Vegetative Features

    • Stems erect and robust, up to 4 m or more tall and 1.3 – 2.5 cm in diameter (depending on cultivar).
    • Plants tufted, forming tillers at the base with erect shoots.
    • Foliage can be various shades of light to dark green or dark purple (depending on cultivar).
    • Leaf blades 1 m or more long, 2 – 7 cm wide, flat, linear to lance-shaped, glabrous or pubescent.
    • Leaf sheaths glabrous or pubescent, margins may have ciliate hairs.
    • Ligules consist of a fringe of short hairs up to 2.5 mm long.
    • Extensive fibrous root system.

    (Hedberg et al. 1995; Barkworth et al. 2003; Sheahan 2014; Jennings et al. 2020; ALA 2024; eFloras 2024; Mahr 2024; PV 2024)

    Similar Species

    ESPÈCES SEMBLABLES

    Similar species are based on a study of seed morphology of various species, and those with similar dispersal units are identified. The study is limited by physical specimen and literature availability at the time of examination, and possibly impacted by the subjectivity of the authors based on their knowledge and experience. Providing similar species information for seed identification is to make users aware of similarities that could possibly result in misidentification.

    Cenchrus purpureus (Schumach.) Morrone
    [Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.]
    Napiergrass

    Caryopsis of C. purpureus is oblong, dorsoventrally flattened, whereas in C. americanus the caryopsis is usually egg-shaped, thickest above the midpoint, and round or angular in cross-section. In C. purpureus the caryopsis is enclosed by the lemma and palea and the fascicle bristles are longer than the spikelets, while in C. americanus the caryopsis protrudes well beyond the lemma and palea and the fascicle bristles are usually shorter than the spikelets.

    Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench subsp. bicolor
    Sorghum

    In S. bicolor subsp. bicolor the two glumes are nearly equal in length and may entirely enclose the caryopsis, or the caryopsis may protrude slightly or well beyond the tips of the glumes. In C. americanus the lower glume is absent or greatly reduced and the upper glume is much shorter than the florets. In S. bicolor subsp. bicolor the caryopsis is round, oval, or egg-shaped, dorsoventrally compressed, and the surface is dull, whereas in C. americanus the caryopsis is egg-shaped to teardrop-shaped, pointed at embryo end, round to slightly compressed, and the surface has a reflective sheen.

    Click to select species

    Cliquez pour sélectionner les espèces

    Comparison Window

    Fenêtre de comparaison

    Need ID Help?

    Besoin d’aide pour l’identification?

    ID Forum
    Forum d'identification
    ID Tool
    Outil d'identification

    Reference(s)

    Référence(s)

    Association of Official Seed Analysts (AOSA). 2024. Rules for Testing Seeds: Volume 3, Uniform Classification of Weed and Crop Seeds. Association of Official Seed Analysts, Wichita KS, USA.

    Association of Official Seed Analysts-Society of Commercial Seed Technologists (AOSA-SCST). 2024. https://analyzeseeds.com/committees/consolidated-exam-committee/ Accessed November 19, 2024.

    Atlas of Living Australia (ALA). 2024. Cenchrus americanus (L.) Morrone, Pearl Millet. https://bie.ala.org.au/species/https://id.biodiversity.org.au/node/apni/2917006#overview Accessed November 26, 2024.

    Barkworth, M. E. Capels, K. M., Long, S., and Piep, M. B. 2003. Flora of North America, Vo. 25 Magnoliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Poaceae, part 2. Oxford University Press.

    Brunken, J., de Wet, J. M. J., and Harlan, J. R. 1977. The morphology and domestication of Pearl Millet. Econ. Bot. 31:163-174.

    Dube, M., Nyoni, N., Bhebhe, S., Sibanda, B., Maphosa, M., and Alexander, B. 2023. Pearl Millet Production Guide in Zimbabwe. Lupane State University, Zimbabwe. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.12680.29440. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370265041_PEARL_MILLET_PRODUCTION_GUIDE_IN_ZIMBABWE

    eFloras. 2024. Flora of China. Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=242336504 Accessed November 19, 2024.

    Hedberg, I., Edwards, S., and Phillips, S. 1995. Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Vol. 7 Poaceae (Gramineae). National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University.

    International Seed Morphology Association (ISMA).  2020. Method for Seed Size Measurement. Version 1.0. ISMA Publication Guide.  https://www.idseed.org/authors/details/method_for_seed_size_measurement.html

    International Seed Testing Association (ISTA). 2024. ISTA Universal List of Species. https://www.seedtest.org/en/technical-committees/purity-committee.html Accessed November 19, 2024.

    Jennings, E., Vendramini, J., and Blount, A. 2020. Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum): Overview and Management. SS-AGR-337. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/AG347

    Mahr, S. 2024. Ornamental Millet, Pennisetum glaucum. Wisconsin Horticulture, Division of Extension. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/ornamental-millet-pennisetum-glaucum/ Accessed November 23, 2024.

    Martin, A. C. 1946. The comparative internal morphology of seeds. The American Midland Naturalist 36(3):513-660.

    Myers, R. L. 2002. Pearl Millet a New Grain Crop Option for Sandy Soils or Other Moisture-Limited Conditions. Alternative Crop Guide. Jefferson Institute, Columbia, MO. https://www.extension.iastate.edu/alternativeag/files/documents/pearlmillet_crop_guide.pdf

    Plants of the World Online (POWO). 2024. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/ Accessed November 18, 2024.

    PlantVillage (PV). 2024. Pearl Millet. https://plantvillage.psu.edu/topics/pearl-millet/infos Accessed November 22, 2024.

    Rehm, S. (ed.) 1994. Multilingual Dictionary of Agronomic Plants. Springer Science+Business Media, B.V.

    Roshevits, R. Y. 1980. Grasses an Introduction to the Study of Fodder and Cereal Grasses. Translated from Russian. Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.

    Satyavathi, C. T., Ambawat, S., Khandelwal. V., and Srivastava, R.K. 2021. Pearl Millet: A Climate-Resilient Nutricereal for Mitigating Hidden Hunger and Provide Nutritional Security. Front. Plant Sci. 12:659938. https://doi:10.3389/fpls.2021.659938

    Scher, J. L., Walters, D. S. and Redford, A. J. 2015. Federal Noxious Weed Disseminules of the U.S., Edition 2.2. California Department of Food and Agriculture, and USDA APHIS PPQ Identification Technology Program. Fort Collins, CO. https://idtools.org/tools/1031/index.cfm Accessed November 26, 2024.

    Sheahan, C.M. 2014. Plant Guide for Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum). USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Cape May Plant Materials Center, Cape May, NJ.

    Simpson, B. B. and Ogorzaly, M. C. 2001. Economic Botany: Plants in Our World. 3rd ed. McGraw Hill, New York, NY, USA.

    Terrell, E. E. 1971. Survey of occurrences of liquid or soft endosperm in grass genera. Bull. Torr. Botan. Club 98(5):264-268.

    United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Marketing Service (USDA-AMS). 2024. State Noxious-Weed Seed Requirements Recognized in the Administration of the Federal Seed Act. https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/StateNoxiousWeedsSeedList.pdf Accessed November 26, 2024.

    United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Services (USDA-ARS). 2024. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomydetail?id=464256 Accessed November 18, 2024.

    United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2024. The PLANTS Database. National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC USA. https://plants.usda.gov/home Accessed November 20, 2024.

    United States Department of Agriculture – Phytosanitary Certificate Issuance and Tracking System (USDA-PCIT). 2024. https://pcit.aphis.usda.gov/PExD/faces/ViewPExD.jsf Accessed November 20, 2024.

    van Wyk, B. 2005. Food Plants of the World. Timber Press. Portland, Oregon, USA.

    Wiersema, J. H. and León, B. 1999. World Economic Plants: A Standard Reference. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Author(s)

    AUTEUR(S)

    Deborah J. Lionakis Meyer, California Department of Food and Agriculture (retired).

    Acknowledgments

    The author wishes to thank the following from the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA): reviewers Jennifer Neudorf and Ruojing Wang for their suggestions for fact sheet improvement.

    contactus@idseed.org

    Last updated
    on 2023-03-27

    © 2025 ISMA - International Seed Morphology Association