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Triticum aestivum L. subsp. aestivum

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General Information
ID Info
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Aperçu
Renseignements Généraux
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Family :

Famille :

Poaceae

Synonym(s) :

Synonyme(s) :

Triticum sativum Lam. (Wiersema and León 2016; Tropicos 2022; USDA-ARS 2022)

Triticum vulgare Vill. (Wiersema and León 2016; Tropicos 2022; USDA-ARS 2022)

Triticum hybernum L. (Tropicos 2022; USDA-ARS 2022)

Common Name(s) :

Nom(s) commun(s) :

Common wheat

(English) (AOSA 2021)
Bread wheat (English) (CABI 2022; USDA-ARS 2022)
Soft wheat (English) (CABI 2022)
Spring wheat (English) (CABI 2022)
Winter wheat (English) (CABI 2022)
Trigo (Portuguese; Spanish) (Wiersema and León 2016)
Trigo candeal (Spanish) (Wiersema and León 2016; USDA-ARS 2022)
Trigo blando (Spanish) (Wiersema and León 2016; USDA-ARS 2022)
Blé ordinaire (French) (Wiersema and León 2016)
Froment (French) (Wiersema and León 2016; CABI 2022)
Saatweizen (German) (Wiersema and León 2016; USDA-ARS 2022)
Komugi (Japanese) (Wiersema and León 2016; USDA-ARS 2022)
小麦(原亚种) xiao mai (yuan ya zhong) (Chinese) (eFloras 2022)

Common wheat (Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum)

  • Common wheat (Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum)

  • Common wheat (Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum)

  • Common wheat (Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum)

  • Common wheat (Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) caryopses (Canada Western Hard White Spring type)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) caryopses (Canada Western Hard White Spring type)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) caryopses (Canada Western Hard White Spring type)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) caryopsis cross-section (Canada Western Hard White Spring type)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) caryopsis (Canada Western Hard White Spring type)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) caryopses (Canada Western Soft White Spring type)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) caryopses (Canada Western Soft White Spring type)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) caryopses (Canada Western Soft White Spring type)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) caryopsis cross-section (Canada Western Soft White Spring type)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) caryopsis (Canada Western Soft White Spring type)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) caryopses (purple type)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) caryopses (purple type)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) caryopsis (purple type)

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum spike with one spikelet circled

  • Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum  A: glume, B: floret in palea view; C: lemma, D: floret in palea view with sterile floret attached

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Overview

Aperçu

Regulation :

Remarques Réglementation:

    Regulation Notes:

    Distribution :

    Répartition :

    Triticum aestivum (wheat) is believed to have originated in southwestern Asia (Acquaah 2012). Ancient wheat was spread from the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East, to India, China, Europe, and later to North America (Wieser et al. 2020).

    Habitat and Crop Association :

    Habitat et Cultures Associées :

    Economic Use, cultivation area, and Weed Association :

    Utilisation économique, zone de culture et association de mauvaises herbes :

    Triticum aestivum L. subsp. aestivum (common wheat) is widely cultivated worldwide (Wiersema and León 2016; USDA-ARS 2022) and is currently the top species providing human nutrition (Paulsen et al. 2016). T. aestivum subsp. aestivum is one of the leading cereals and used as a staple food for 1.2 billion people worldwide (Afzal et al. 2015; Iqbal et al. 2018).

    The principal use of common wheat is in milling to produce flour (Purdue University 1997) for use in breads, cakes, cookies, pastries, common wheat pasta, and noodles (CGC 2019). Other uses include animal feed, ethanol (CGC 2019), forage, beverage base, starch, cereal, fiber, and alcohol (Wiersema and León 2016; USDA-ARS 2022).

    In 2019, the global annual production of T. aestivum subsp. aestivum was approximately 766 million tonnes (AG 2021). Around 90-95% of world Triticum spp. cultivation area is used to grow T. aestivum subsp. aestivum (Paulsen et al. 2016; Wieser et al. 2020) with more than 100 countries around the world producing economically significant quantities of common wheat (Wieser et al. 2020). Six major exporters of T. aestivum subsp. aestivum are: Australia, Canada, France, Ukraine, United States and Russia (AG 2021).

    Some of the most common weeds in wheat are Bassia scoparia (L.) A.J. Scott (kochia), Chenopodium album (L.) (lamb’s-quarters), and Raphanus raphanistrum (L.) (wild radish) as well as species belonging to the following genera: Lolium, Alopecurus, Phalaris, Avena, and Bromus (Nakka et al. 2019). Other species infesting common wheat throughout the world include, but not limited to: Convolvulus arvensis L. (field bindweed), Fallopia convolvulus (L.) Á. Löve (wild buckwheat), Stellaria media (L.) Vill. (common chickweed), Lactuca serriola L. (prickly lettuce), Salsola tragus L. (Russian thistle), Thlaspi arvense L. (stinkweed), Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. (shepherd’s purse) (Nakka 2019), Anthemis cotula L. (mayweed), Brassica napus (volunteer canola), Chorispora tenella (Pall.) DC., Lamium amplexicaule L. (henbit), and Setaria spp. (Flessner et al. 2021).

    Winter wheat is often infested with weeds that are winter annuals such as: Thlaspi arvense L. (stinkweed), Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. (shepherd’s purse), Descurainia Sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl (flixweed) and Crepis tectorum L. (narrow-leaved hawk’s beard) (GOM 2022). Bromus tectorum L. (downy brome) is a winter annual grass that is a serious weed of winter wheat (Nakka et al. 2019). Another winter annual grass, Aegilops cylindrical Host (jointed goatgrass), commonly infests winter wheat fields in the United States and is able to hybridize with it (Donald and Ogg 1991).

    Duration of Life Cycle :

    Durée du cycle vital:

    Annual or winter annual (Paulsen et al. 2016)

    Dispersal Unit Type :

    Type d’unité de dispersion :

    Caryopsis, occasionally spikelet

    General Information

    RENSEIGNEMENTS GÉNÉRAUX

    Triticum aestivum is believed to have originated in southwestern Asia (Acquaah 2012). Its domestication is thought to have occurred in the fertile crescent of the Middle East (Hirst 2018; AG 2021). First domestication started with the diploid and tetraploid wheat followed later by hybridization of the hexaploid wheat (Feuillet et al. 2007). Two features of modern wheat is a non-shattering spike and a caryopsis that is naked and free-threshing (Shewry 2009; Wieser et al. 2020).

    T. aestivum subsp. aestivum is a cool season crop that does best in temperate regions with ample sunshine and moderate moisture levels (Paulsen et al. 2016). This crop performs best on well drained soils and often grown where annual precipitation is 375 to 875 mm (AG 2021).

    Classes of T. aestivum subsp. aestivum include two different growth types, spring and winter, with only the latter requiring vernalization (period of cold to induce reproductive growth) (Paulsen et al. 2016). Wheat classes are also based on whether the endosperm is hard or soft and if the caryopsis coat is red or white (Paulsen et al. 2016). Generally, soft wheat has a lower gluten content, and used as cake flour than hard wheat varieties, used as bread flour (Paulsen et al. 2016; CGC 2019). White wheat is preferred for cereals and whole wheat products (Paulsen 2016).

    In Western Canada common wheat has 8 different market classes and in Eastern Canada it has 5 different market classes (Canadian Grain Commission 2019). Australia has 9 basic grades of wheat (one of which is Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) and are based on protein content and other characteristics (AG 2021).

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    Identification

    Identification

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    • Spikelet

      Size

      • Spikelet length: 10–15 mm (FNA 1993+; Sharp & Simon 2002); width: 9–18 mm wide (Sharp & Simon 2002)
      • Glume length: 6 – 12 mm (FNA 1993+)
      • Upper and lower glumes are a similar length: 6 – 11 mm (Sharp & Simon)
      • Glumes are shorter than the florets
      • Glume awn length: 0 – 40 mm (FNA 1993+; Sharp & Simon 2002)

      Shape

      • Spikelet is egg-shaped and laterally compressed (Sharp & Simon 2002)
      • Glumes are 2-keeled (Sharp & Simon 2002); generally keeled towards one end but may be for their entire length (FNA 1993+)
      • One glume end may be truncate, pointed or equipped with a tooth or awn

      Surface Texture

      • Spikelets may be smooth to hairy with nerves on both glumes and on the florets (Sharp & Simon 2002)
      • Glumes may be smooth or hairy in surface texture with 5 – 9 nerves (Sharp & Simon 2002) and may be leathery (coriaceous) (FNA 1993+; Sharp & Simon 2002) or papery (chartaceous) (Sharp & Simon 2002)

      Colour

      • Spikelet is generally straw yellow in colour; green when immature

      Other Features

      • The spikelets generally not disarticulating at maturity (FNA 1993+; eFloras 2022)
      • Spikelets comprised of 3-9 florets; 2-5 of which produce caryopses (FNA 1993+)

      Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum spike with one spikelet circled

    • Floret

      Size

      • Floret (lemma) length: 10 – 15 mm (FNA 1993+; Sharp & Simon 2002)
      • Lemma awn length: 0 – 150 mm (Sharp & Simon 2002)
      • Lemma awn length: 0 – 12 cm (FNA 1993+)

      Shape

      • Lemma is egg-shaped (Sharp & Simon 2002)
      • Lemma may be toothed or awned at one end (FNA 1993+)

      Surface Texture

      • Lemma is papery (chartaceous) and has 5 to 10 nerves and is keeled (Sharp & Simon 2002)
      • Palea has 2 nerves and 2 keels (Sharp & Simon 2002)

      Colour

      • Florets are straw yellow in colour

      Other Features

      • The lemma and palea are not adherent to the caryopsis

      Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum  A: glume, B: floret in palea view; C: lemma, D: floret in palea view with sterile floret attached

    • Caryopsis

      Size

      • Caryopsis length: 4.02 – 4.84 mm; width: 2.05 – 2.70 mm
      *Note: minimum and maximum of 31 caryopses in a normal range of one variety using image measurement (ISMA 2020)

      Caryopsis length from literature:
      • Caryopsis length: 5 – 7 mm (Sharp & Simon 2002)
      • Caryopsis length: 5.0 – 9.0 mm; width 1.8 – 4.5 mm (ISTA 2021)

      Shape

      • Caryopsis shape is oval, long oval or egg-shaped

      Surface Texture

      • Caryopsis surface texture is smooth, sometimes wrinkled transversely
      • Hilum side of caryopsis is longitudinally grooved and referred to as a crease (Kirby 2002)
      • Generally, either side of the crease is curved and referred to as a cheek (Kirby 2002)

      Colour

      • Caryopsis is commonly light yellow or a reddish brown in colour
      • Occasionally the caryopsis is blue, purple (Morgounov et al. 2020), or black in colour (Wieser et al. 2020)

      Other Features

      • Caryopsis end opposite embryo is blunt, covered with brush of short hairs
      • Hilum linear (Sharp & Simon 2002), nearly as long as caryopsis (ISTA 2021)

      Common wheat (Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum)

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    • Embryo

      Size

      • The embryo (germ), which is approximately 3% of the dry caryopsis weight, is comprised of the embryonic axis (root and shoot) and the scutellum (storage organ) (Wieser et al. 2002)
      • The embryo is approximately 1/4 the length of the caryopsis

      Shape

      • The embryo is sunken, short, and widely rounded (ISTA 2021)

      Endosperm

      • Depending on variety, the endosperm may be mealy or flinty (FNA 1993+)
      • Endosperm is white; endosperm is soft to semi-solid (ISTA 2021)
      • The endosperm generally comprises 80 – 85% of the dry caryopsis weight (Wieser et al. 2002)

      Other Features

      • The embryo is located at the caryopsis end opposite the brush and on the side opposite the crease and hilum

      Common wheat (Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum)

    Identification Tips

    CONSEILS POUR L’IDENTIFICATION

    Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum caryopses generally have a plump rounded cheek area on either side of the crease which Triticum turgidum subsp. durum (Desf.) van Slageren (durum wheat) lack. Durum wheat also has a pinched rim or ridge around its embryo that is absent in common wheat. The brush of hairs opposite the embryo end are often thicker and more obvious in common wheat, than in durum and ×Triticosecale spp. (triticale).

    Common wheat (Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum)

    Additional Botany Information

    AUTRES RENSEIGNEMENTS BOTANIQUES

    Flowers/Inflorescence

    • Spike (inflorescence) length: 6 – 18 cm (FNA 1993+); each with 16 – 20 fertile spikelets (Sharp & Simon 2002)
    • The spike has 2 rows of spikelets (AG 2021)
    • Each spikelet is comprised of 3 to 9 florets, but only 2 to 5 may be fertile and produce a caryopsis (FNA 1993+)
    • Each floret has a lemma and palea that enclose two lodicules, three stamens and the carpel (Kirby 2002)

    Vegetative Features

    • The culm (stem) length: 14 – 150 cm (FNA 1993+)
    • The leaf, which is made up of a cylindrical sheath and blade, has a 1 – 2 mm long, membranous ligule (Kirby 2002)
    • Lateral branches are sometimes produced, which is known as tillering; some tillers fully develop to produce a spike (Kirby 2002)

    Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum (common wheat) spike

    Similar Species

    ESPÈCES SEMBLABLES

    Similar species are based on a study of seed morphology of various species, and those with similar dispersal units are identified. The study is limited by physical specimen and literature availability at the time of examination, and possibly impacted by the subjectivity of the authors based on their knowledge and experience. Providing similar species information for seed identification is to make users aware of similarities that could possibly result in misidentification.

     

    Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum (Desf.) van Slageren (Triticum turgidum Durum Group (durum wheat)

    Caryopses of T. turgidum subsp. durum are generally larger than those of T. aestivum subsp. aestivum. The brush of short hairs is often missing or much reduced at the end opposite the embryo which is a distinguishing feature in T. aestivum subsp. aestivum. T. turgidum subsp. durum caryopses are often an amber colour and cross sections reveal a relatively hard endosperm in comparison to the white and softer endosperm found in T. aestivum subsp. aestivum. The rounded cheeks along the crease seen in T. aestivum subsp. aestivum are lacking in T. turgidum subsp. durum caryopses and the embryo is often encircled by a slight ridge in the latter species.

    ×Triticosecale spp. (triticale)

    ×Triticosecale spp. caryopses are often larger in size and their surface texture is generally more wrinkled than those of T. aestivum subsp. aestivum. Another feature of x Triticosecale is that the outer layer of the caryopsis is often flaky and loosely adhered to the internal portion. The embryo of x Triticosecale is more pointed and extends further past the margin of the caryopsis than that of wheat.

    Triticum aestivum L. subsp. spelta (L.) Thell. (Triticum aestivum Spelta Group) (spelt)

    The caryopses of T. aestivum subsp. spelta are flat or sometimes indented on the creased side and generally the embryo side’s surface has more striations. T. aestivum subsp. spelta may be in spikelet form or processed as caryopsis form since unlike wheat it is not a free-threshing species (Dvorak et al. 2012).

    Triticum turgidum L. subsp. dicoccon (Schrank) Thell. (Triticum turgidum Dicoccum Group) (emmer).

    T. turgidum subsp. dicoccon is not a free-threshing species and is generally in spikelet form (Wieser et al. 2020). Emmer caryopses are generally long oval shaped with both ends relatively narrow in comparison to common wheat. The emmer caryopsis has steeply sloped sides and the creased side is flat or indented.

    Triticum monococcum L. subsp. monococcum (einkorn)

    T. monococcum subsp. monococcum, like spelt and emmer, is considered a hulled wheat (Longin et al. 2016). T. monococcum subsp. monococcum caryopses are strongly laterally compressed so that the embryos are located on the narrow edges. The embryo of T. monococcum subsp. monococcum noticeably extends past the margin of the caryopsis in contrast to T. aestivum subsp. aestivum.

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    Reference(s)

    Référence(s)

    Acquaah, G. 2012. Principles of Plant Genetics and Breeding. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ, Wiley.

    Afzal, M. I., Muhammad, A. I., Zahid, A. C. 2015. Triggering growth and boosting economic yield of late-sown wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) with foliar application of allelopathic water extracts. – World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 11(2): 94-100. DOI:10.5829/idosi.wjas.2015.11.2.12650 .

    AOSA. 2021. Rules for Testing Seeds, Vol. 3: Uniform Classification of Weed and Crop Seeds. Association of Official Seed Analysts, Washington DC.

    Australian Government (AG). 2021. The Biology of Triticum aestivum L. (Bread Wheat). https://www.ogtr.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/2021-07/the_biology_of_triticum_aestivum_l._bread_wheat.pdf

    Barkworth, M. E., K. M. Capels, S. Long, L. K. Anderton, and M. B. Piep. 2007. Flora of North America. Vol. 24: Magnoliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Poaceae, part 1. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.

    Canadian Grain Commission (CGC). 2019. Canadian wheat classes. Canadian Grain Commission. https://grainscanada.gc.ca/en/grain-quality/grain-grading/wheat-classes.html?msclkid=203bf79cb9bb11ecbf5f8b28c4d4f701 Accessed April 12, 2022.

    Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI). 2022. Invasive Species Compendium, CAB International, Wallingford, UK. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/journal/cabicompendium Accessed July 25, 2022.

    Donald, W. and Ogg, A. 1991. Biology and Control of Jointed Goatgrass (Aegilops cylindrica), a Review. Weed Technology 5: 3-17.

    Dvorak J, Deal KR, Luo MC, You FM, von Borstel K, Dehghani H. 2012. The origin of spelt and free-threshing hexaploid wheat. J Hered. 2012 May-Jun;103(3):426-41. doi: 10.1093/jhered/esr152. Epub 2012 Feb 29. PMID: 22378960.

    eFloras. 2022. Electronic Floras. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA., http://www.efloras.org Accessed July 25, 2022.

    Feuillet, C., Langride, P., and Waugh, R. 2007. Cereal breeding takes a walk on the side. Trends in Genetics. 24: 24-32.

    Flessner, M., Burke, I., Dille, J., Everman, W., VanGessel, M., Tidemann, B., . . . Sikkema, P. 2021. Potential wheat yield loss due to weeds in the United States and Canada. Weed Technology, 35(6), 916-923. doi:10.1017/wet.2021.78.

    Flora of North America (FNA) Editorial Committee, eds. 1993+. Flora of North America North of Mexico [Online]. 22+ vols. New York and Oxford. http://beta.floranorthamerica.org. Accessed July 25, 2022.

    Government of Manitoba (GOM). 2022. Winter Wheat – Production and Management. Government of Manitoba: Agriculture. https://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/crops/crop-management/winter-wheat.html Accessed June 24, 2022.

    Hirst, K. K. 2018. Wheat domestication. https://www.thoughtco.com/wheat (2018) Loomis, R. S. and Connor, D. J. (1992). Crop Ecology: Productivity and management in agricultural systems. New York: Press syndicate of the University of Cambridge.

    Iqbal, M. A., Imtiaz, H., Muzammil, H. S., Essa, A., Zahoor, A. 2018. Probing profitability of irrigated and rainfed bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crops under foliage applied sorghum and moringa extracts in Pakistan. – Custos e Agronegocio 14(2): 2-16.

    International Seed Testing Association (ISTA). 2021. Universal List of Species. https://www.seedtest.org/en/services-header/tools/purity-committee/universal-list-species.html

    Kirby, E. J. M. 2002. Botany of the wheat plant. In: Bread Wheat Improvement and Production (ed. B. C. Curtis, S. Rajaram and H. Gomez Macpherson). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/y4011e/y4011e05.htm#TopOfPage

    Longin, C.F., Ziegler, J.U., Schweiggert, R.M., Koehler, P., Carle, R., Würschum, T. 2016. Comparative Study of Hulled (Einkorn, Emmer, and Spelt) and Naked Wheats (Durum and Bread Wheat): Agronomic Performance and Quality Traits. Crop Science, 56, 302-311.

    Morgounov, A. & Karaduman, Yaşar & Akin, Beyhan & Aydogan, Sinan & Baenziger, P. & Bhatta, Madhav & Chudinov, Vladimir & Dreisigacker, Susanne & Velu, G. & Güler, Safure & Guzmán, Carlos & Nehe, Ajit & Poudel, Rachana & Rose, Devin & Gordeeva, Elena & Shamanin, Vladimir & Subasi, Kemal & Zelenskiy, Yuriy & Khlestkina, Elena. 2020. Yield and Quality in Purple-Grained Wheat Isogenic Lines. Agronomy. 10. DOI:10.3390/agronomy10010086.

    Nakkaa, S., Jugulamb, M., Peterson, D., Asifa, M. 2019. Herbicide resistance: Development of wheat production systems and current status of resistant weeds in wheat cropping systems. The Crop Journal, Volume 7, pp. 750-760.

    Paulsen, G. M., Shroyer, J. P. & Shroyer K. J. 2016. Wheat: Agronomy in Wrigley C., Corke H., Seetharaman K. Faubion J. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Food Grains (Second Edition): (4) 176-185.

    Purdue University. 1997. Wheat: Gramineae, Poaceae: Triticum species. Hort Purdue. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394437-5.00200-X

    Sharp, D. and Simon, B.K. 2002. AusGrass: Grasses of Australia. CD-ROM, Version 1.0 (Australian Biological Resources Study, Canberra, and Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland). https://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/AusGrass/key/AusGrass/Media/Html/Triticum/TRIAES.HTML

    Shewry, P. R. 2009. Wheat. Journal of Experimental Botany (60-6): 1537-1553. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp058

    Tropicos. 2022. Missouri Botanical Garden. https://tropicos.org Accessed July 25, 2022.

    United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Services (USDA-ARS). 2022. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch Accessed July 25, 2022.

    Wiersema, J. H., & León, B. 2016. World Economic Plants (2nd Edition). Taylor & Francis. https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781466576810

    Wieser, H., Koehler, P. & Scherf, K. A. 2020. Wheat an Exceptional Crop: Botanical Features, Chemistry, Utilization, Nutritional and Health Aspects. https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780128217153

    Author(s)

    AUTEUR(S)

    Angela Salzl, Canadian Food Inspection Agency
    Sumaia Mahmuda, Lal Teer Seed Limited

    Acknowledgement:
    To Krishan Shah, former student of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, for his assistance with the literature search and summary. To Lirong Hao and Taran Meyer of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency for their seed imaging.

    contactus@idseed.org

    Last updated
    on 2023-03-27

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